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The Complete

AQUARIUM

BOOK

The Care and Breeding of Goldfish
and Tropical Fishes

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BY

WILLIAM T. INNES

Former President Aquarium Society, Philadelphia

5

\

HALCYON HOUSE : NEW YORK

COPYRICHTED BY INNES & SONS

Philadelphia, U. S. A.
1917
1921
1926
1929

1931 (April)
1931 (December)
1932
1936

Rights of Reproduction and Translation
Reserved

Halcyon House editions are published
and distributed by Blue Ribbon Books,
Inc., 386 Fourth Avenue, New York City.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
BY THE CORNWALL PRESS, INC., CORNWALL, N. Y.

PREFACE TO HALCYON HOUSE EDITION

Interest in the aquarium hobby has expanded so tremendously in the
past few years that it might now be termed one of our national pleasures.

Since originally published, under the title "Goldfish Varieties and
Tropical Aquarium Fishes," this book has gone through 15 editions, each
one revised, improved, and larger than its predecessor. It is everywhere
recognized as the world's standard book on the subject. While the price
has always been $4.00, we hoped to find a method of manufacture and
marketing that would place the work within the reach of everyone.
Through our arrangements with Halcyon House, this is now happily
accomplished.

The present edition not only contains everything that was in former
printings, but there are several added color plates taken from our new
$5.00 book ("Exotic Aquarium Fishes"), devoted exclusively to tropicals.

Likewise there are some plates taken from our monthly magazine,
"The Aquarium" ($2.00 per year).

We are always glad to write aquarists having special problems (if
stamped, self-addressed envelope is enclosed), but as this book answers
all the questions received over a period of many years, we request that
readers make sure the answer is not here before writing us.

We do not deal in aquarium fishes or supplies.

Innes Publishing Company
Philadelphia

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Publisher's Preface

Page
. 3

Chapter One :
" Two:

<<

Aquarium Management 5

Aquatic Plants 25

Three : Fishfoods 67

Prepared Fishfoods

Living Fishfoods

Four: Diseases and Their Treatment 83

Five : Fish Enemies 96

Six: Construction of Aquaria, Tanks, Etc 103

Seven: Aquarium Appliances 119

Eight: The Microscope in Aquarium Work 128

Nine : Photographing Fishes 133

Ten : Marine Aquaria 135

Eleven : Terraria 142

Twelve: Native Aquarium Fishes 151

Thirteen : The Goldfish 172

Fourteen: Judging Goldfish Competitions 193

Fifteen : Breeding Goldfishes 198

Sixteen: Wholesale Breeding 217

Seventeen :Tropical Fishes and Aquaria 230

Eighteen : Tropical Fish Exhibitions 235

Nineteen: Descriptive Key to Breeding 237

Twenty: Alphabetical List of Aquarium Fishes,

Their Breeding Habits, Care, Etc 285

Twenty-One : Public Aquaria 298

Twenty-Two : In Short 302

Illustrations and Their Sources 304

Bibliography 310

Cross Index 313

CHAPTER ONE

■JfofQE*

uarmm Managenient

With particular reference to the Qoldfish

A lady wrote the author, / have just bought eight pretty goldfish in
a cute little globe. I feed them three good meals a day and change the
water often, but they are always at the top of the water with their mouths
partly in the air. This makes a little sound. Do you think they are
trying to speak to me?

This letter sounds funny, of course, but it really was not intended as
a humorous effort. That makes it sad. Those four short sentences are
unique in that they have compressed or crystallized into a few simple
words the substance of a vast popular ignorance on the subjects treated
in this chapter. The lady should be awarded a medal for crowding the
greatest amount of aquarium ignorance into the fewest possible words.

Yet her letter is not without value. On the contrary, it is appre-
ciated for its sincerity, and it points out, in a very clear way, important
topics which should be here treated. Those lines from the lady are the
text and inspiration of this chapter. After the "ways and wherefores"
have been made plain, a part of the reply to the writer will be given at
its close, which would seem to be the appropriate place.

One is forced to the conclusion that while the state of affairs described
by this particular correspondent is very bad indeed, it is not far from
fairly representing a considerable number of kind persons who are bar-
barous through no fault of the heart, but from lack of information. Take
a stroll through a residential district anywhere. See the dwarf "aquar-
iums" and "fish globes" in windows, with their little prisoners in milky
water, struggling for air at the surface, and marked for an early death.
Would it not be a satisfaction to personally enlighten the owners? The
author has often felt the urge, but such an undertaking with a stranger
calls for genius in tact. Would it not be like the naturalist who spent his
slender income in purchasing caged birds to give them their liberty ? No
matter how many he bought, the dealers' cages were promptly re-filled.
Aquarium keepers are legion. Hence it is that help for the beginner forms
one of the important features of this work.

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT

Most aquarists, however slight their interest in this hobby, or how
humble their ambitions, are true lovers of their pets. Also many of them
have a keen appreciation of Nature, and would like nothing better than
to have in their homes a reproduction in miniature of a section of the
water world.

Can an aquarium be made such a little world in itself, populated by
well and happy fish folk? Decidedly, yes. All we have to do is take a
few hints from Mother Nature Herself, and we will be able to change
what our insurance friends call the "life expectancy" of aquarium fishes
to years instead of months.

In aquatic life we find four conditions of the first importance to
fishes. To emphasize that importance we will set them out in this fashion :

Plentiful water surface

No sudden temperature changes

Growing plants

Not too much food

Now let us see just how these four conditions can be applied to the
management of a household aquarium so that its inmates will have no
just complaint against their masters or mistresses. We will consider these
major topics in the order named, and, as we go along, cover certain sub-
jects which are allied to each.

WATER SURFACE

To begin with, do you know that a fish breathes air, just as much as
we do ? Perhaps you know, friend reader, but most do not, so here is the
explanation : It is a natural physical property of water to contain a certain
amount of air. We might correctly say dissolved air. The cooler the
water, the more air it can hold. Please remember that. We will return
to it more than once.

A good proof that air is in water is to let a tumbler of cold water
stand in a warm room. Everyone has seen how the bubbles of air leave
the water and adhere to the sides of the glass. Very many more, which
you do not see, escape at the surface. While this simple experiment
shows that there is air in the water, it also shows the fact already men-
tioned, which is that cool water has more capacity to hold air, and as the
tumbler warms, the air is forced out in the form of bubbles. A tumbler
of tepid water in a colder room will not develop bubbles. On the con-
trary, it will absorb and hold more air, but of course, this cannot be seen.
You may safely take science's word for it— it is there.

This air is the breath of the fish. As the water passes through the
gills, air is mechanically extracted. The gills are equivalent to the lungs,

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT

only they have both to extract the air and then absorb into the fishes'
blood the oxygen which it contains.

Bearing in mind the fact that water holds a certain amount of air,
the question arises, how is the air to be renewed as it is exhausted by the
fish? Also what becomes of the impurities (mostly carbon dioxide)
exhaled by the breathers of air-in-water ?

The surface of the water is our great friend in solving these two im-
portant questions. That is where most of the magic takes place. New
air is absorbed here and carbon dioxide is liberated. These processes take
place with certainty, but not rapidity. The state of affairs in the aquar-
ium, then, is fish exhausting the oxygen by breathing, and the water re-
plenishing it by absorption at the surface. This rather lengthy but neces-
sary explanation, it is hoped, will bring the reader to the conclusion that
the most important factor in aquarium management is plenty of water
surface in proportion to the number and size of fishes. Certainly it is true
of aquaria containing temperate-water fishes, the subjects we have in
mind at this time. Tropical varieties will be treated of elsewhere.

A graphic illustration
will perhaps better fix the
principle in mind. If water
permanently filled the fig-
ures 1 and 2, each having
just the same water surface
area, which would success-
fully maintain more fishes ?
The reader who has fol-
lowed carefully will answer
"Neither!" If both were
stocked with too many
fishes, figure 1 would last
longer without a change
of water because it would
be starting off with a larger
total supply of oxygen, but
after the initial supply had
been exhausted, the capac-
ity of both aquaria for
maintaining fish life would
be precisely the same, be-
cause the air surfaces are the same. A straight-sided aquarium from
which more than half the water has evaporated will continue to satisfac-
torily support fish life, provided it was not overstocked in the beginning.

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT

If one were working on the plan of keeping too many fish and chang-
ing the water to keep them alive, then of course the deeper aquarium
would last longer without a change, but a real aquarium, reproducing
natural conditions, should never need a change. Never? Well, in the
famous words from "Pinafore," hardly ever. Once in a great while—
somewhere between six months and six years— would be all right. The
best of homes, on land or in water, need an occasional housecleaning, but
an aquarium under the proper conditions should be able to continue in a
healthy condition indefinitely, only adding water to make up for evapora-
tion. To prove the correctness of this theory they have in the Aquarium
Building at Battery Park in New York City a small aquarium which
has not been disturbed for over thirty years ! A thorough cleansing and
re-planting once a year should be sufficient for a properly arranged house-
hold aquarium.

Fish Capacity Rule. By this time the patient reader will no doubt
like to know how much of this wonderful water-surface a fish needs.
Good. Let us put theory into practice. We will first consider the less
favorable conditions, which are, highly developed fancy goldfish in a
temperature from 78 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. That is, delicate fish in
water containing comparatively little oxygen. Since most of us must
keep our fishes in the same container throughout the year, we had best
base our calculations on meeting the greatest disadvantages we are likely
to encounter, on the principle that a chain is no stronger than its weakest
link. A good working rule is Twenty-Four Square Inches of Water
Surface to Every Inch of Body Length of Fish. That is to say, an
aquarium containing a water surface of 8x12 inches, which makes a
square inch area of 96 inches, should, the year round, in the average
temperate zone, be able to keep in health either one four-inch, or two
two-inch or four one-inch fancy goldfishes. (Mark you, please, the words
either and or.)

The common long-bodied goldfish with single tail is hardier and can
do with a little less space. Take people in a closed room. Some of the
delicate ones will feel distress before the stronger notice any discomfort.
Even common fish, however, should not be given less than eighteen square
inches of water surface to the inch of fish body. (These computations all
exclude the tails.) It is to be assumed we all know that the square
measure is obtained by multiplying the length and breadth together.

Surface Measure of Circle. The surface measure of cylindrical and
globe-shaped aquaria is found by another easy rule. The radius (which
is half the diameter) is multiplied by itself. This result is multiplied by
3 1/7. For example, a circular surface is 6 inches across. The radius is
3 inches. Multiplying this by itself we have 9, and multiplying 9 by

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT

A'A INCHES
6 INCHES

7Vi INCHES

makes 14 square inches of surface

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Surprising how rapidly the surface increases
as the water lowers from the top of a globe.
The bottom level shown will support three
times as many fishes as the top, and the mid-
dle one twice as many. The matter of how
far a globe is filled may make the difference
between failure and success.

Fig. 3

6 INCHES
XO INCHES

28 sq. in.

78 " "

Fig. 4

The modern flattened globe has a lot more style and very much more air-contact
surface, especially when carried a little below the top level.

12 INCHES

113 sq. in.

Fig. 5

The main intent of these diagrams is to show the practical application of the all-
important air-surface principle.

These three containers are reduced in the same proportion and each has approxi-
mately the same water capacity. As an aquarium the lower design is much the best.
Theoretically, when filled, it could support eight times as many fishes as the top globe
filled. In practice the old style globes are almost always overcrowded, and the thing
to do is to take goldfish from these and place them in better-formed aquaria. However,
owners of flat-shaped aquaria are not to be encouraged in the possible idea that they
would be justified in increasing their aquarium population just because the old-style
globe is less efficient.

10 AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT

3 1/7 we have a little over 28 square inches. This could very well repre-
sent one of the popular-sized globes. According to the measurement it
should not contain more than one fish, a little over an inch in length. Of
the millions of such globes, few are populated for the welfare of their
inhabitants, hence repeated failure and final discouragement.

Another practical rule which has been advocated by some writers,
for estimating the fish capacity of an aquarium, is one inch of fish to the
gallon of water. To find the gallon capacity, multiply the length, breadth
and height together in inches. Divide the result by 231. The result will
be in gallons. This rule is all right for aquaria of average proportions,
but the air-surface measurement of the water is more trustworthy, because
that is the factor which counts most. Also, it is more apt to keep the cor-
rect principle in the mind of the aquarist.

Any rule is bound to be only approximately correct, because tempera-
ture makes a great deal of difference. Fishes breathe slowly in cold water
and fast in warm. Furthermore a four-inch fish consumes much more
oxygen than four one-inch fishes. It would, therefore, be well to bear in
mind that in constant high temperatures (80 to 90 degrees), or for large
fishes, more room should be allowed than the rule calls for.

The reader may sometime see an aquarium containing contented fish
in much greater quantity than recommended by the formula outlined by
the author. It will always be found that these aquaria are quite cool.
Our calculations are made not for the most favorable conditions, but for
the average that will be met through the year.

Experienced aquarists on being asked to diagnose the troubles of the
beginner, and advising less fish or more room, are often met with the
rejoinder "Why the man in the store said I could keep that many fish."
Clerks in pet shops are like clerks elsewhere. They are well intentioned
but often lack real experience. Besides, they are naturally a little preju-
diced in favor of making more sales.

Start with few fish and success will be much more likely. If there
are too many they will all decline and then it may be too late to save any
of them.

Fish Globes. Much argument has raged about fish globes, some ex-
tremists declaring them a cruelty on account of their supposedly focusing
the light into the eyes of the fishes. The true objection is that they are
nearly always overcrowded, and, owing to their shape, the air surface of
the water is small. This can be overcome to some extent by only partial
filling. When only two-thirds filled the surface area is about twice as
large as when filled to near the top. Except for keeping some of the
miniature tropical fishes the small globe is indeed an abomination. None
for goldfish should be of less than eight inches at the widest point, not

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT

11

Fig. 6 Keystone Globe

even for the small-sized goldfish. A
twelve-inch globe, two-thirds filled,
can be made into a fairly respectable
aquarium, although all globes have
the disadvantage of distorting the ap-
pearance of the contents. To avoid
cracking, the larger sizes should be
set on a piece of thick felt or in a
saucer of fine sand, so that the weight
will be carried evenly.

The more modern shapes of flat-
tened and dish-shaped bowls are great
improvements. The "keystone" shape shown in illustration is now made
in the cheap globes, and when filled just to the widest point is a vast
improvement over the old style.

To Tell When Fishes Have Insufficient Air. It is when they rise
to the top, "sucking bubbles" as some call it, or gasping. It is their way
of panting for breath. It is wonderful indeed how the fish know that life-
saving oxygen is at the surface of the water. Look at an overcrowded pail
of minnows just freshly caught. Probably not in their whole lives have
they ever needed to come to the surface for air, but the moment the neces-
sity arises, each and every one that is able will hang to the surface for
dear life. That is what the lady's goldfishes were doing when she felt
they were trying to speak to her !

When fishes are found trying to "speak" in this way, their owner
should pay heed and act promptly. The condition sometimes arises from
uneaten food which has started to decompose. Perhaps it is a dead fish
or snail hidden in the grasses. If it is from food, the water is apt to be
cloudy. If the water has turned bad it has to be changed. If the trouble
is overcrowding, temporary relief can be had by a partial change of water
and placing the aquarium in a cooler position.

"How Often Must I Change the Water?" is truly the commonest
question of the beginner. He seems to expect a reply such as "every day",
"once a week" or "once a month". There should be no such answer.
When the fishes gasp at the surface for air they need attention— probably
a partial change of water. Though the water was changed only two
hours before and they again come to the top and remain there, they must
be looked after. As soon as they seek air in this way their conditions are
wrong, even though they do it only every few days. If an aquarium is
apparently going along all right for several weeks and the fish come to

12 AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT

the top on a dull, heavy day when the barometric pressure is low, that
should give no concern. It will pass with the weather.

A hungry fish beggmg at the surface for food is quite different from
one that is there for air. The hungry beggars only rise at the approach
of a person and do not remain constantly at the top. Fish struggling for
air stay there, or only go down for a few moments when frightened.

While temporary relief may be had by changing water, that does not
really solve the problem. Either the number of fish must be reduced or
a larger container provided.

TEMPERATURE CHANGES

Changing the Water. Repeated changes of water are injurious to
fishes. In many localities even one change is dangerous, because the new
water may contain an extra heavy charge of disinfectant or other chem-
ical. Water must, however, be changed sometimes, and there is a right
way to do it. Here we apply the second on our list of Nature's ways,
"No sudden temperature changes". No matter how rapidly the air tem-
perature may alter, the water in streams and ponds never jumps several
degrees instantly. To change fish suddenly from one temperature to an-
other is unnatural and injurious. It is the cause of much disease among
them.

Draw the water and allow it to stand at the same temperature as the
aquarium at least two hours before use. If the fishes are suffocating they
should not wait so long for a complete change of water. Take out say a
quarter of the contents and put in fresh, first tempering it by the addition
of warmer or cooler water to equalize it with that which they are in. Just
a trifle cooler is allowable for partial changes made for this reason.

In drawing new water from the spigot, if the presence of chlorine is
suspected, hold a finger over the nozzle and squirt the water as hard as
possible into the bucket or other container. This liberates much of the
gas. The finest spray from a hose nozzle is even better. Chlorine may
be entirely removed by boiling the water. Contrary to general belief,
boiled water is not objectionable, only it should be aerated by pouring
after it has cooled.

A good way to place the water in the aquarium is to pour it from a
sprinkling pot. Filling the pot with aquarium water and sprinkling it
back is one way to freshen it.

Many experienced aquarists are so suspicious of new water (or raw,
as they call it) that when drawing off dirt and sediment they allow the old
water to settle in a pail and return the clear portion. Some even filter it,
so as to lose as little as possible. A method of doing this will be found
on page 125. Raw water is more dangerous in the winter and spring.

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT 13

PLANTS

We have now pretty well covered the important conditions regarding
aquarium water and taken several necessary side-excursions without
losing, it is hoped, the thread of the main ideas on oxygen and tempera-
ture changes. Now let us consider the plants, for they help in much the
same way as the water air-surface, but in a lesser degree.

Plants Absorb the Waste Products of Animal Life and Give
Back Oxygen. The principle of exchange benefits between plant and
animal life in the aquarium was discovered in about the middle of the last
century, and as the idea took hold it gained a somewhat exaggerated im-
portance. The term "balanced aquarium" grew into use, meaning that
the plant and animal life balanced each other on a nearly equal exchange
of chemical elements. This mutually beneficial exchange undoubtedly
does take place. Plants in an aquarium without fish will virtually stand
still in their growth. On the introduction of fish a marked quickening
of their development can be noticed. The author is an intense admirer
of beautiful growing plants in the aquarium, and knows they have real
value of a practical nature. The fact is, though, we should not depend
upon them to compensate for overcrowding the aquarium with fishes.
This is for two reasons. First and most important, the plants only give
off oxygen under the influence of fairly strong direct or diffused sunlight.
This means that for more than half the twenty-four hours they are practi-
cally useless as oxygenators, to say nothing of their idleness on dull days
when barometric pressure is low and their services are most needed. The
second reason is that their oxygen-supplying activity is small compared
with that of the air-surface of the water.

It must even be admitted that plants which are in a badly lighted
situation are likely to do more harm than good.

Use plants, and plenty of them, provided there is good daylight.
They are beneficial and beautiful. No imitation of aquatic Nature is
complete without them. They are, however, frail friends, doing good
work when conditions favor them, but sleeping at critical times.

The fish need plenty of oxygen all the time ; day, night and dull days.
Water-surface will not fail them, provided there is enough of it.

There are many beautiful aquatics which may, under proper condi-
tions, be used in the aquarium. Those which can be readily obtained and
are of a useful character, as well as attractive in appearance, are few
in number. Of these, Sagittaria, in its different varieties, stands out in
importance above all the rest. The description of this and other plants
will be found in the following chapter on Aquarium Plants.

Light. As above stated, aquatic plants in order to thrive and help
purify the water must have good light. When in the sun many of them

14 AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT

can be seen releasing a steady stream of fine bubbles. These are almost
pure oxygen.

Strong diffused light with an hour or two of direct sun is approxi-
mately ideal. Ordinary artificial light is worthless so far as any effect on
the plants is concerned.

Direct sun in the summer months is dangerous to small aquaria, as
it is liable to raise the temperature too high for the fishes.

FEEDING

This is the fourth of our major topics, but by no means the least im-
portant. Again we shall see what we can glean from Nature's way of
doing things.

Fishes in natural conditions are nearly always hungry (except some-
times when their lunch is served on a barbed hook). Also they never get
enough to satisfy their appetites. This is our cue. Feed sparingly. Gold-
fish over one year old should never have all they can eat. When they
swim coaxingly to the near side of the aquarium, using what eloquence
they have to beg for food, it is a great temptation to yield, but true kind-
ness bids us steel ourselves against doing so if the feeding time has not
arrived.

There is no feeding rule which can be successfully applied to all con-
ditions and times. Remember that all of a fish's functions are directly
affected by temperature. They are cold-blooded animals, and when cold
they are slowed down in all ways, needing less fuel to keep going.

Unlike warm-blooded animals, food does not fortify them with heat
against the cold. In excess it merely clogs their systems with substance
which poisons because it is eliminated too slowly.

When the water is 60 degrees or higher it is allowable to feed once
daily. When 55 to 60 degrees, every other day is sufficient, while from
three to six days is often enough at temperatures from 40 to 55 degrees.
This has to be done with a certain amount of personal judgment.

A meal should be small enough that it is entirely consumed in five
minutes. Any surplus food remaining after that time should be removed,
but experience in feeding soon makes this extra work unnecessary.
Results will be better if only one person is responsible for the feeding.

It is better to err by feeding too little than too much.

The ingredients of the food should approximate in content that which
the fish would secure under natural conditions. A goldfish would not on
its own account be likely to find oatmeal, crab meat or hen's eggs, but
these and other substances contain the elements which, when properly
combined, approximate natural fish food. Definite food formulae will be
found in the chapter on Fishfoods (Page 67).

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT IS

IN GENERAL

Temperature. Try to keep a goldfish aquarium within the limits of
SO to 80 degrees. From 60 to 70 degrees is the preferred range, but in
winter, which is the natural rest period of all fishes of the temperate zone,
a little cooler water will do no harm. Floating thermometers with red
or blue spirits are easily read and are of value in all aquarium man-
agement.

Water. We sometimes hear that certain water is too pure for fishes
to live in. This is "pure" nonsense. Extremely small, newly-hatched
fishes eat some of the microscopic life commonly in water, but as they
grow larger they are unable to strain out such fine matter.

Distilled water, on account of its lack of desirable mineral content,
is not beneficial to fishes, and, on the other hand, some natural waters
are so heavily charged with minerals (sulphur and lime mainly) that they
cannot be successfully used for aquarium purposes. Ordinarily the city
water is satisfactory unless an extra heavy charge of germicide has been
placed in it. If one has aquarium troubles and the water is suspected, it
is a good plan to refill the aquarium from a stream known to contain
fishes. While muddy water is unsightly, it is not harmful.

Water, as might well be surmised, can be adversely affected by the
character of the vessel it is in. Copper, brass, zinc, galvanized iron, new
wood and new concrete all have their dangers to fishes. Even a brass
drain pipe in the aquarium should be nickeled. Wood and concrete are
not safe, even for a few hours use, until they have held water for several
weeks, unless seasoning has been somewhat hurried by running water. A
moderate amount of iron rust is not injurious but is unsightly. A few
aquaria have iron bottoms inside. It is a good plan to lay a sheet of glass
over the iron, and sand on top the glass. This will confine the rust.

Green Water. A popular question by beginners is, "Why does my
aquarium water turn green?" This is easier to answer than to remedy.
Floating everywhere in the air are spores or cells of many forms of life.
Only those develop which chance to come into contact with conditions
favorable to their particular needs. Some of them like a cool, moist rock
in the depths of shaded woods. This turns out to be moss. Others like
to get at Mother's jars of preserves when they are not perfectly sealed.
Here we find mold; likewise mildew on bread stored in a warm, damp
place. A number of spores like the conditions found in an aquarium.
Some of these are lower forms of animal life which when developed are
mostly too small for the unaided eye to detect, but which are eaten by
young fishes. Many others are aquatic-vegetal, which develop in such
numbers in certain kinds of water as to render it green. Although these
belong to the vegetable kingdom, some of them at one stage of develop-

16 AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT

ment swim with such agility that it is difficult to see them under a
microscope. After they have satisfied themselves with a good swim they
attach somewhere and develop into a staid and sober mossy thread of
algae. Others become fully developed bits of delightfully green plant
life, of somewhat geometric shapes, idly suspended in the water, but
annoying the aquarist by turning it green.

The conditions which favor the green water algae are too much light
and too many fishes. Fewer or smaller fishes and a reduction of light,
perhaps by the intervention of tissue paper, will usually clear the water
within a few weeks. Slightly acid water is more likely to stay clear.

Suspended algae seems to occur in cycles and is only stimulated to
new growth by a partial change of water in the aquarium. On the other
hand if it is allowed to disappear naturally, the aquarium is likely to
remain clear for a long time.

If one does not wish to wait for Nature to do the work, the clearing
can be hurried by adding one grain (by weight) of permanganate of potash
to each gallon of water. Remove snails or any tropical fishes, but the
goldfishes may safely be left in this solution. The water becomes at once
lavender, later brown and finally clears in a few days. It will not stay
clear, however, unless the conditions are changed.

As a matter of fact, green water is apt to be healthy water. Many
a sick fish has been cured by being placed in it.

If water has been very green and practically opaque for a long time,
one should be on the lookout for a turn to a yellowish brown color. This
change may occur over night, especially in warm weather. It means that
the suspended algae is dying. As its decomposition will soon kill the
fishes, an immediate change of water is advisable.

Also very green water in strong light may develop gas which gets
inside the fins of fancy goldfishes, presenting an appearance of bubbles.
These are injurious but will disappear if the fish is placed in old, clear
water.

Live Daphnia in plentiful numbers (Page 73) will clear green water
in a few days.

To see the bottom of a tank or pool where the water is opaque,
take a bottle which is longer than the water is deep, press the base of
the bottle close to the point to be examined and look through the open
end. A milk bottle serves well in shallow water.

Chemical Changes in Water. Many chemical changes are always
taking place in the aquarium. These are mainly due to the breathing
and the excrement of the fishes, as well as the action of plants. In time
an unbalanced condition is liable to develop, especially if there are not
plenty of healthy, growing plants. It is desirable to check up occasion-
ally on the water. Owing to the recent development of very cheap and
simple testing sets, this is an easy matter to do with sufficient accuracy
for our purposes. In the average aquarium the water should be main-
tained near the neutral point— neither strongly acid nor alkaline. If
it leans toward the acid side there will be less likelihood of disease and
cloudy water. The acid reading of the scale accompanying the test set

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT 17

should be brought to about 6.8 by use of acid sodium phosphate.
Alkaline conditions are produced by using washing soda. The highest
reading (alkaline) should not exceed 7.4. The chemicals mentioned
should be used only in conjunction with a testing set— never by guess-
work—especially the soda. See also page 95. An equal mixture of
plaster of Paris and precipitated chalk made into a thick paste in
water, hardened and broken into small lumps is a slow neutralizer of
acid conditions. About a shellbark-size piece to ten gallons.

Testing sets are advertised in the various aquarium magazines.
They are sometimes of value in testing the water which is proposed for
aquarium use, especially where highly alkaline "hard" artesian or well
water needs to be neutralized.

Sick Fishes. It is always safer to remove an affected fish from the
others. If the trouble is a contagious one, the aquarium or tank should
be thoroughly disinfected, not overlooking the plants in this matter. For
all practical purposes they can be sterilized by placing for one hour in a
permanganate of potassium solution, 3 grains by weight to the gallon of
water. Satisfactory results will also be given by dipping plants for a
few moments in concentrated lime water, or in household ammonia, re-
duced to one-fiftieth strength. Either of these methods should be ap-
plied to all new plants introduced into the aquarium, especially those col-
lected from the wild, or from aquaria of doubtful condition. In case of
an aquarium becoming contaminated, it can be disinfected by dissolving
in it permanganate of potash to the strength already indicated, allowing
it to stand from two to three hours, first removing all mussels, snails and
fishes. In changing to clear water again it will do no harm if a little
permanganate remains.

Unless newly acquired fishes come from a source beyond suspicion
it is a grave risk to introduce them at once into an established aquarium
of healthy fish stock. They really should first be quarantined and care-
fully observed for at least two weeks, this being particularly true of im-
ported goldfishes. They may already be inoculated with diseases only in
process of incubation, but which will nevertheless develop.

Care of Fish Nets. It is a safe practice after using a fish net to al-
ways rinse under a tap of clear water. The germs of fish diseases and
the spores of green-water algae which might later infect another aquarium
are thus eliminated. It might be added, for the reassurance of any who
need it, that no fish disease can be communicated to a human being by
contact.

Scavengers. These are natural agencies for getting rid of most of the
harmful offal and decomposition in the aquarium. They consist largely
of those species of snails that do not attack the plants. Among the best

18

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT

known, most satisfactory and easily obtained are the large Japanese
Snails (Viviparus malleatus), the so-called African Paper-shelled Snail
(Lymnaea auricularia), the Ramshorn Snail (Planorbis), and the Pond

Fig. 7. African Fig. 8. Red Ramshorn Fig. 9. Japanese

The Best Freshwater Aquarium Snails (Life Size)

Snail (Physa). These are all active in eating mossy growth from the

glass, or particles of food which the fishes have not taken, and in no
case will they injure any of the aquarium plants. Most snails consume
decomposing animal matter, such as dead tadpoles, fishes, etc. Living
snails will not injure young nor adult fishes, nor pollute the water.

Snails are sometimes useful trouble-indicators. If they persist in
staying at the edge of the water, it may have turned foul. They will also
do the same thing if new water has not been seasoned. They seem to
have a distinct objection to an excess of oxygen in the water.

Japanese Snails are very interesting in that they bring forth fully
developed young about the size of a small pea, able to take care of them-
selves among goldfishes. These snails are either male or female, but a
female once impregnated seems, like a queen bee, to remain fertile for the
remainder of her life. The right horn of the male is somewhat the shorter,
this serving a sexual purpose. These snails are quite long-lived and
grow to the size of a large walnut. They can be identified by the slightly
raised keels showing on the last spiral. Another snail resembling the
Japanese species is the Potomac Snail. Running in the direction of the
spiral are three brown stripes on a horn-colored background. It is quite
attractive and is frequently sold as the Japanese Snail, but it is too slug-
gish to be of much real value.

AQUARIUM M ANAGEMENT 19

The African or Paper-shelled Snail is very prettily marked with
brown spots on a horn-colored background, and is an extremely rapid
breeder, but is of short life.

Ramshorn Snails in both the European and native varieties are
excellent aquarium scavengers.

The European Red Ramshorn or Coral Snail (Planorbis comeus,
var. ruber) is a comparatively recent introduction and is unique on ac-
count of the bright red coral color of the body. It is an active worker,
but is often a victim of larger goldfishes, who find it to be a choice morsel
of food.

The Australian Red Snail (Bulinus australianus), is a still later
introduction, and a good one. It is an attractive shade of orange red.
Fairly hardy, a rapid breeder and a good worker.

The Pond Snail is extremely common in the Eastern and Middle
States. It may be identified by the left-hand turn of the dark-colored
shell. It is both the most active and the hardiest of all snails in the
aquarium, and is an intrepid scavenger. It breeds at an early age and
the young have sufficiently hard shells that goldfishes do not molest them.

The foregoing snails will usually survive winter in outdoor pools.

No kind of snails can be kept in the company of carnivorous fishes,
such for instance as Sunfish (except Chsetodons) and many of the tropi-
cals—Paradise Fish, Chanchitos and the like.

Do not forget that snails can starve in a constantly spick-and-span
aquarium. If kept in such an aquatic parlor they should be occasionally
removed and given a meal such as is indicated in a later paragraph on
"Snail Breeding."

Limpets are very flat, translucent snails about one-eighth inch in
diameter, the shell extending completely over the body. These are both
harmless and useless. They are occasionally found in the aquarium.

The Frog Tadpole has been used by many as an aquarium scavenger,
but its value is of considerable doubt. They dash about the aquarium in
an aimless manner, keeping the water stirred up and the natural sediment
agitated. Furthermore, they soon learn to eat fish food, and, after that
step in education, they are no longer scavengers.

Another scavenger is the freshwater mussel. The chief value of the
mussel is to keep down the vegetable growth which causes aquarium
water to turn green. Mussels are equipped with a sort of siphon arrange-
ment, by which they suck in water in one opening and eject it from an-
other. In the few moments which they hold the water they extract from
it the floating vegetable organisms. Two or three mussels can keep a
ten-gallon aquarium free of green water. Care should be taken to occa-

20

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT

sionally see whether the mussels are living, as they decompose very
rapidly and spoil the aquarium water. This can be done by tapping
lightly on the shell and seeing whether they respond by closing. It is
doubtful whether the benefits arising from their use are equal to the risks
incurred in their dying, especially in tropical aquaria. They may be
gathered by raking the mud and sand of freshwater bodies. Their presence
is usually indicated by some half-shells lying around in the water.

Fig. 10. Freshwater Mussel, Showing Water Intake and Outlet; Also "Foot"

With Which It Burrows and Travels

Weatherfish. A curious and useful scavenger is an eel-like fish
called the Weatherfish. Varieties are native to Europe and Asia. They
are freely imported and inexpensive. When not scouring the aquarium
bottom for bits of decomposing matter, they sometimes burrow into the

Fig. 11. The Weatherfish (Misgurnus fossilis)

sand, leaving only the head exposed, producing a quaint appearance. In
their special occupation as scavengers they employ a method which is
both effectual and interesting. The dirt and top sand are taken in the
mouth and rapidly shot out through the gills. Any particle of food con-
sidered edible is automatically separated from the bulk of the dirt and
swallowed.

Goldfish keep the sand loose and in good condition by picking it up
in their mouths, but most other aquarium fishes do not touch it, which
allows it to cake. The Weatherfish can be introduced with such fishes,
even a single small one keeping the sand in a large aquarium loose on the
top. Sizes of four inches or less are best. They are all apt to agitate
the sediment, especially the larger ones.

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT 21

Snail Breeding. The breeding of snails is extremely simple, yet
there are certain conditions that are necessary to success. Among the
ordinary and really useful aquarium snails there are only two kinds
whose breeding requires any attention. These are the African and the
Ramshorn, especially the coral variety. Both these snails deposit eggs
on plants or glass in small, gelatinous masses, which in warm weather
hatch in about three weeks. The young of the Japanese and Pond Snails
are able to live among the gentler fishes.

The most important point is to see that the young hatch and spend
the first several weeks of their lives where there are no large fishes.
Naturally this will be done either by removing the plant leaves with at-
tached eggs to a special tank, or by removing the fishes from where the
eggs are laid. Snail spawn is often placed with newly-hatched fishes, and
they grow together. It is well to remember though, as elsewhere stated,
that snails eat fish spawn, but never living fishes, of even the smallest
size.

The second point has to do with feeding. If the tank is an old one
with green-covered sides and some decaying vegetation, no special feed-
ing is called for. Otherwise they will need some attention in order to
thrive. Dried powdered lettuce leaves, flour, or finely powdered fish food
sprinkled on the surface of the water, are satisfactory foods for the young
snails. The thick paste from boiled oatmeal is good, both for young and
adults.

It is just as well to remove parent snails from the young, so that
the latter will get all the food, especially if artificial feeding is not re-
sorted to.

After snails have passed the early stage of development they relish
lettuce leaves. Snails, especially the breeders, thrive finely on raw meat
or fish, which they eat as soon as it begins to decompose. Cantaloup
rinds, tomato parings, sliced bananas, raw or cooked spinach are among
their favorite foods.

Cypris, a small crustacean figured on page 73, is injurious to snails
and should be excluded if possible.

There are commercial possibilities in the breeding of Japanese and
Coral Snails. If one does not care to rear these snails to keep up a stock,
the young African and Ramshorn may be used as a valuable diet for fishes.
Their extensive culture has been proposed as a diet for the young of our
food fishes.

Aquarium Covers. It is a popular idea that a free access of air to
the aquarium is essential to the welfare of the fishes, but this is not so,
particularly if there is a liberal plant growth. A glass cover, raised about
a quarter inch, promotes a more luxuriant growth of plants, keeps the

22 AQUARI UM MANAGEMENT

surface of the water free of dust or bubbles, prevents objects from acci-
dentally falling into the aquarium, keeps the fishes from leaping out and
our friend the cat from fishing in. Wire gauze, properly secured, will
serve the latter purposes.

With most tropical fishes the glass cover should rest directly on the
aquarium or jar, with no intervening space. This keeps the water a few
degrees warmer. Furthermore, there are a number of tropical fishes which
can leap through a very small opening. This they are most apt to do
when newly placed in an aquarium or otherwise disturbed. Our wild
native fishes have an increased tendency to leap as the breeding season
approaches, this characteristic being shared by the single-tail goldfishes.

Artificial Aeration. With the idea of adding to the oxygen-content
of water, particularly at night when the chemical action of plants is
negligible, some of our more ambitious aquarists install an air pump
which is piped to each aquarium and there air is liberated in fine bubbles.
This scheme to some extent counteracts the evil effects of overcrowding.
It tends, however, to agitate and circulate aquarium sediment. Elec-
trical pumps are the most satisfactory. Complete outfits are usually
advertised in the magazines listed after our Bibliography.

Testing Aquaria. Before putting plants or sand in the aquarium
it is well to test its tightness. More often than not the larger sizes leak
after moving or standing dry. These leaks can usually be corrected in a
few days by filling with very muddy water, stirring it occasionally.

Removing Dust and Scum. When the aquarium has no cover glass
or when there is a considerable decomposition of old plants there is some-
times a scum formed on top of the water. To remove this, tear a piece of
newspaper to the width of the aquarium. Float the paper at one end of
tank, lifting by one edge, and draw quickly over the length of the water.
Repeat once or twice with fresh paper.

Foul Sand. Sometimes sand or pebbles will turn black and become
quite ill-smelling. The cause for this is not always easy to determine. It
is more apt to occur where the light is feeble and the plant growth poor,
also where sand is too deep. If taken out and dried in a thin layer it will
clear up. If the conditions seem right and there are sufficient plants, do
not be hasty about taking out dark sand. The condition often corrects
itself if given a chance, and besides, it may be just a little natural dirt
which does no harm.

Algae and Confervae. Should the plants become completely covered
with algae or "moss," try introducing a considerable number of small
snails. The large Japanese variety is not always suitable for this, as it is
unable to crawl on the smaller leaves. If this fails, remove and destroy the
plants, thoroughly disinfect the aquarium in every particular and replant.
Do not allow quite so much light in the future.

AQUARIUM MANAGEMENT 23

There is a very long, hard conferva about the thickness of horse-
hair which grows into matted masses. This is quite a pest when once
established, as it soon fills the aquarium and enmeshes young fish, which
usually die before being rescued. The only way to get rid of this is to
take up all plants, go over each carefully and see that no single thread
of the conferva is left. If the smallest bit remains the growth will soon
be as bad as ever.

A blue-green, rather smelly alga often over-runs aquaria containing
tropical fishes. Goldfishes are very fond of this and they will soon clear
it out if given the opportunity. Snails will not eat it. We are often
asked how the glass of tropical aquaria can be kept clean. The only
answer we know is, clean it by hand and then subdue the light a little.

Cleaning the Glass. When the aquarium glass has become green
or dirty, it may be quickly cleaned by scraping with a safety razor blade.
Handy holders for these can be had cheaply in hardware and chain stores.
A thorough cleaning of the empty aquarium is accomplished by rubbing
with either whiting or table salt on a moist cloth. Sand should not be
used. It causes minute scratches, which are unsightly and may lead to
the breaking of the glass.

A chore ball of woven copper, such as used in kitchens, is most
excellent for cleaning either straight or curved sides of aquaria.

Coal Gas. Water absorbs most gases and fumes readily. This in-
cludes coal gas, which is so injurious to all life, plant and animal. Many
homes are cursed with the presence of this gas at night, to the detriment
of every inhabitant in the house, especially the fish. A way should
be found to correct the condition, but if this is not at once practicable,
cover the aquarium tightly with glass during the hours of exposure to the
poisonous influence. The same precaution should be taken when the air
is laden with tobacco smoke, fresh paint, varnish or shellac.

Hints to Beginners. The author would draw special attention to
what follows under this heading. It is founded on wide observation, and
if followed will prevent much loss and disappointment for those going
in for fancy goldfishes.

In starting with fancy breeds go to a reliable dealer or breeder,
preferably in September or October, purchasing fish of the spring hatch-
ing. The style of fish to select is a matter of personal taste, but do not
pick undersized fishes by any inducement of price or word, especially
on explanation of their being "a late hatch." The bodies, exclusive of
tails, should at this time be at least lj4 inches long. Two inches or
more is better. Be willing to pay the charge for robust goldfishes. The
runts are dear at any price.

24 AQU ARIUM MANAGEMENT

If it is not convenient to purchase in autumn, make it a rule not to
get fishes over one year old. Buying spawn in the spring is an interest-
ing way to start.

Unless desirous of making a flashy show in an aquarium at once,
it is very bad policy to purchase fully developed fishes with long fins.
These have usually reached their zenith and are ready to "go back."
The change of aquarium is enough to start them on the down grade.
Good young stock will develop the fins later and will be more likely to
"stay with you." None except advanced fanciers who know what they
are about should purchase the older stock and they seldom do.

Try to avoid purchasing goldfish which have been forced in growth
in running water. Most of them decline or die in their second year.

A Word for the Pet Store Man. The author was one of those boys
with a passion for going into pet shops. One of the questions which often
occurred to him was, "Why are pet store keepers so disagreeable?"
Having since appreciated what they must contend with, the answer is no
longer a mystery. Besides their difficulty in securing healthy stock,
feeding it a long time, experiencing many losses, they have to contend
with two very irritating classes of persons. One of these is the time-
consuming curiosity-seeker who pretends to be a prospective customer
but who has no intention of purchasing. The other is the "bum sport"
who blames all his troubles and losses on the dealer, and who wants to
exchange dead pets for live ones. Stock in a pet store is necessarily
crowded, therefore difficult to keep in good condition. The dealer does
the best he can in delivering apparently healthy pets. The customer's
eyes should be his market. After the deal is completed there should be
no more ground for complaint than if a lady bought a piece of goods
in a store, took it home, cut it wrong and then came back for an exchange.
Wrong treatment of pets at home can be quite as fatal as the pair of wild
scissors. Let us regard the pet store man "more in sorrow than in anger."

THE ANSWER

And now we close the chapter, as promised, with the reply to the
good lady whose letter was quoted at the outset :

Dear Madam :

Undoubtedly your fishes are trying to speak
to you. Anyone with a slight knowledge of fish
language would be able to tell what they are say-
ing. It is n 'Mistress, have mercy on us; we are
suffocating."

CHAPTER TWO

S/2

Aquatic Plants

^1 jg~\/~*b. ^,9>-> -^-\M3M/^Sv r-sr>

Whether aquaria are kept for scientific study or for the enjoyment
of the beautiful, aquatic plants will always be found a useful, if not
indispensable, adjunct. The fact that plants give off oxygen under the
influence of light has been mentioned at several other places in this
volume.

That the roots of healthy aquatic plants absorb the products of
decomposition in the bottom of the aquarium is an established fact.
When an aquarium has been established for some time, the sand has
become a little dirty and the plants have spread so that the roots of
some are against the glass, a close observation will show a condition
similar to that pictured in Figure 12. The sand near the roots is dis-
tinctly whiter than that beyond their reach.

No arguments need be put forward
to establish the aesthetic value of plant
life in the household aquarium or the
pool in summer. So well understood is
the value of aquatic plants that aquarists
are constantly on the lookout for any-
thing new which might enhance the
beautiful results already achieved. Occa-
sionally something of real merit is found.
We are pleased to be able to list several
of these newer species here, together with
the better-known favorites. Only those
plants having been proven satisfactory
are described, but naturally in such a large range it will be found that
the same conditions are not suited to all.

Readers of former editions of this work have made many inquiries
as to where some of the more unusual plants can be obtained commer-
cially. Dealers have complained that they are unable to secure several
of the plants listed, which makes their firms appear at a disadvantage

Fig. 12.
Absorption by Plant Roots

26 AQUATIC PLANTS

when such orders are received. This complaint is not without reason,
so we hasten to say that such plants as Hair Grass, Nitella, Spatterdock,
Fontinalis, Quillwort, Mare's Tail, Lace Plant, Cryptocoryne, Frogbit
and Water Chestnut can only be had here and there, sometimes from
some amateur enthusiast, and again only by personally collecting.

The truth is that those plants which are easily obtainable com-
mercially and which have year-round merit in the aquarium are very
few indeed. Only one plant fulfills all requirements, and that is Sagit-
taria in its several forms. It is far the best aquarium plant. It is an
excellent oxygenator, will thrive and multiply in any reasonable good
position, is not easily injured either by fish or net; it is a beautiful,
strictly aquatic plant appropriate to the aquarium, and it is easily
obtained.

Let us rightly name the aquarium plants. Correspondents have
called them "weeds," "moss," "water-weeds" and even "sea- weeds!"

As to sources of supply, see advertisements in magazines listed on
slip near back of book.

It is a good general rule to select young plants. They transplant
better and sooner adapt themselves to new conditions. If old plants
are used, the half-dead leaves should be removed.

Sand or Pebbles? Much discussion has been brought out as to
the best methods of planting, principally as to whether to use soil, sand
or pebbles, or whether, in some cases, planting is necessary at all. Success
has been attained in many ways. The author believes in the use of
coarse sand, either with or without a mixture of pebbles, this latter
being a matter of preference only. The disadvantage of pebbles is that
they are likely to get into a siphon and clog it. Pebbles without sand
collect dirt and food particles which cannot be removed nor reached by
fishes or snails. While it rarely happens, fishes have been known to
strangle on a pebble. Sand varies considerably in different localities,
but usually building sand is satisfactory for our use. Any kind which
is as coarse as granulated sugar will do. Pin-head size is ideal. There
are no experienced advocates of sea or other fine sand. It packs too
hard for the roots to penetrate.

Quantity of Plants. Beginners reading of the merits of vegetation
in the aquarium sometimes expect magical results from two or three
plants. The fact is that each makes a very small contribution towards
the desired end. It takes a battery of them to obtain an appreciable
result. Three sides of the aquarium should be planted somewhat closely,
but allowing for multiplication from such runners as are put out by
Sagittaria and Vallisneria. In short, there is no danger of overplanting
so long as the fishes can move about freely, and the view is not obscured.

AQUATIC PLANTS 27

PLANTING

Planting is usually done directly in the sand or grit. Some aquarists
prefer planting in miniature pots or special earthenware or cement trays,
so that when it is desired to clean the aquarium it will not be necessary
to uproot the plants. In potting plants in this manner a few pebbles
should be placed in the bottom of the pot and then a layer of clean soil,
preferably from a pond or stream. Spread the roots well into the soil
and then cover with about one-half inch of sand, so that the earth cannot
become free and thus cloud the aquarium water. An inverted piece of
turf may be used instead of aquatic soil. As a rule, it is not advisable
to use any soil in planting the aquarium itself.

The first operation in planting an aquarium is to see that the sand
or grit is thoroughly clean. This can only be brought about by a long
and thorough washing. After the water runs clear from the sand,
spread the bottom of the aquarium to a depth of, say, half an inch. If
rockwork is to be introduced, place this now. Next fill with about two
inches of water. Now take the roots of Sagittaria, Vallisneria, or other
rooted plants, and spread them out well on the aquarium floor. After the
proper arrangement of plants is made, add from an inch to two inches of
coarse sand, being careful not to completely cover any of the leaves.
Do not make the sand deeper than sufficient to hold the plants in position.
Now fill the aquarium, and then with a slender stick lift any leaves which
have been held down by the sand. After the leaves have been brought
into an upright position, take hold of them and pull upwards until the
crown of the plant comes just to the surface of the sand. Aquatic
plants with crowns seem to do better if the crown is not quite covered.
The crown is the point from which the leaves put out. Such plants should
be inserted singly and room left for young plants to spread from runners.

Plants that have become uprooted in a filled aquarium can best be
replaced by the use of planting sticks described on page 121.

Care is needed in planting so as not to allow the leaves to become
even partially dry. This can be prevented by frequent sprinkling, and
the work should be completed as rapidly as possible.

Bunches of Anacharis, Cabomba, Myriophyllum and other plants
can be added last. These need to be weighted down with bits of lead
or tin wire. In filling the aquarium it is a good plan to place a piece
of paper in the center of the aquarium and let the water strike on this.
After there is sufficient water to allow the paper to float, place it on the
surface. A moderate stream poured on it, instead of sinking it, as one
might expect, causes it to ride on the top of the water. By this method
the plants will not be seriously disturbed. The use of a watering pot

28 AQUATIC PLANTS

for filling will also prevent any considerable disturbance of the plants.
The aquarium should be allowed to stand at least a day before the fish
are introduced, but a week would be better, so that the plants may
become established and active in time to be of real use to the fishes.

Some aquarists use a thin sprinkling of powdered sheep manure in
the sand just below the plants. Like the little girl with the curl, when
the results are good they are very good indeed, but when they are bad
they are horrid. The bad results— mainly the fouling of the sand— are
probably produced by an excess of the fertilizer. Hence the writer
hesitates to recommend this plan to the general public, although it can
be very stimulating to plant growth. Where the vegetation has not
prospered in favorable conditions of light, etc., it might be well to try
the fertilizer method. If the water is clouded for a week or two after
planting, it will do no harm.

There is simply no end to the possibilities of arrangement and
planting effect in the aquarium. Miniature boulders, natural bridges and
grottos of stone form charming settings for plants. All stones should be
free from sharp edges which would be liable to injure the fishes.

Worn stones, arranged to imitate the whims of Nature, will be
found much more satisfactory and appropriate than any silly mermaids,
submerged castles or other misplaced bric-a-brac.

SAGITTARIA

This plant in the three described species comprises the most important
group of aquarium plants. It has not the commercial importance of
Cabomba, because the latter is convenient to use in small bunches in
the "fish globes" seen everywhere, but to those who plant in real aquaria,
Sagittaria receives first consideration.

It is a plant with bright green slender leaves of grass-like form,
so that it is popularly referred to by aquarists as "grass." It takes its
name from the arrow-shaped summer-leaves which stand above the water,
Sagittarius being the sign of the archer in the Zodiac. The white flowers
are the shape of miniature cups, with yellow centres, standing above
the water. Although seeds are formed, the principal means of reproduc-
tion is by runners. Small tubers or corms are also formed among the
roots, particularly in crowded situations. These produce plants.

Aquarium-grown Sagittaria plants are the more desirable, but unfor-
tunately there are not enough of these to go round. Consequently we
have to largely depend on wild plants, which to some extent have to be
naturalized. The wild plants usually have very few and very short roots.
Obtain aquarium-grown plants if possible, and from healthy aquaria.

AQUATIC PLANTS

29

Fig. 13. Sagittaria natans (Reduced one-third)

30

AQUATIC PLANTS

Fig. 14. Giant SagiPtaria (S. sinensis) [Reduced one-half]

AQUATIC PLANTS

31

Fig. IS. Ludwigia glandulosa (Natural size)
Fig. 16. Sagittaria subulata (Natural size)

32 AQUATIC PLANTS

A number of species are distributed throughout the United States,
many of them quite large, frequently with leaves extending well above
the water are only useful as bog plants. The majority of wild Sagittarias
are not suited to the aquarium.

Sagittaria natans, known also as Ribbon Arrowhead, is, to the aquar-
ist, perhaps the most important of the group. It is of moderate size
and is suited to the average aquarium on that account. Multiplying
slowly, growing the entire year, supplying a large amount of oxygen and
thriving under varying conditions, it is very valuable. When an aquarium
is uprooted on account of Sagittaria or Vallisneria becoming too thick,
it will be found that the sand is not foul-smelling, showing that the
matted roots purify the soil.

Sagittaria gigantea is believed to be a cultivated variety of S. sinensis.
Its leaves are broad and stocky, having a decidedly substantial quality,
and is one of the easiest plants to succeed with. A healthy specimen is
quite light in weight, and on this account must be well planted with roots
extending in different directions. Once established, it holds well and will
stand more rough usage from contact with fish-nets, etc., than any other
aquatic. Height, 10 to IS inches. It is better suited to a large aquarium
than a small one, but a single Giant Sagittaria in the centre of a smallei
tank, surrounded by some of its lesser cousins, makes a good effect. So
popular has this plant deservedly become that dealers have difficulty in
supplying it, and they are always ready to buy up any surplus stock.

Sagittaria subulata has recently come into popularity on account of
its small size. Fanciers of tropical fishes, now becoming so numerous,
generally use small aquaria, and in order to produce a symmetrical picture
it is necessary to introduce plants of suitable proportion. The leaves
are of a rather dark shade of green, narrow and thick through, presenting
a strong, wiry appearance. Sagittaria subulata grows from 3 to 7 inches,
the stronger the light the shorter the leaves. It multiplies from runners
and eventually carpets the aquarium, making either a good spawning bed
or a miniature thicket in which young fishes may hide from cannibalistic
parents. Can be had from some dealers and is collected in the coast-wise
States from New York to Alabama. It is incorrectly known as S. pusilla.

VALLISNERIA

Vallisneria (Vallisneria spiralis) is another of the grass-like plants,
and has strap-shaped leaves of the same breadth almost their entire
length. It is known as Channel Grass, Eel Grass and Tape Grass. Ap-
pearing somewhat like Sagittaria, it has a distinct individuality of its own.
The leaves are of a lighter green and have a more translucent quality

AQUATIC PLANTS

33

Fig. 17. Vallisneria spiralis (One-third size)
(Italian stock)

34 AQUATIC PLANTS

than Sagittaria. Also the plant tends more to rise vertically in undulating
lines, which produces a very pleasant decorative effect, being of a less
spreading contour than Sagittaria. The leaves may also be identified
by the margins being of a slightly different shade of green. By reflected
light the margins appear the darker, but if held up to transmitted light,
the centre is the darker. Vallisneria is probably without a superior as an
oxygenator. For use in large aquaria, particularly where artistic effects
are striven for, it is without an equal. The aquarium shown in colors
on page 111 is featured principally by this plant, although printing
ink falls short of giving an adequate idea of the radiant, silky green leaves.

For some years American aquarists depended upon plants gathered
locally from rivers, creeks, mill races, etc. Owing to the long-established
habit of dying down to the tuft in winter, the plant had a strong tendency
to keep to the schedule, even when kept in a warm aquarium over
winter. In order to overcome this difficulty a search was made for a
stock growing in a climate without severe winters. This plan was suc-
cessful. We were fortunate enough to secure a small stock from Italy
which, by careful propagation and distribution among leading aquarists,
has now multiplied itself into millions. There is every reason why it
should establish itself in further favor among those having large or fairly
deep aquaria. It grows and multiplies constantly and the runners lie
close to the bottom, not requiring to be pushed down like young Sagit-
taria plants. Contrary to the views of some writers, we advise against
deep planting. It is important that the crown be not covered, but just
at the surface. The plant is not well suited to small aquaria, as it grows
from 18 to 36 inches, according to conditions. If closely confined it is
likely to get into a tangled mass whenever a fish has to be caught.
Allowed to rise to the surface and then extend horizontally on it for some
distance it produces a luxuriant picture. Rising from either end of the
aquarium and trained over the surface towards the centre, Vallisneria
makes the best of frames to show off the brilliant colors of the fishes.
The sexes are separate in Vallisneria, fertilization taking place in a
peculiar manner. The female flower, small, cup-shaped and white, floats
at the end of a long spiral scape on the surface of the water. The male
flower on another plant comes only a short distance from the crown. It is
a case containing pollen balls. When the case splits the pollen floats to
the top, where, by the action of wind, insects or other chance, fertilization
is accomplished. Few of these plants in the aquarium start from seed.
In propagation by runner only one sex appears along a line, males and
females producing only their own kind. The first plants imported were
all females. No males were seen for several years. These were likely
propagated from the seeds.

AQUATIC PLANTS

35

Fig. 18. Giant Vallisneria (One-quarter size)

36 AQUATIC PLANTS

For one or two impressive plants to dominate the centre of a large
aquarium, nothing is better than Giant Vallisneria, now brought from the
Southern States by some of our leading dealers. Its leaves are as wide
as those of Giant Sagittaria, but much longer, varying from two to four
feet, depending on conditions. This variety is also a constant grower.
Stocks of Vallisneria suited to the aquarium do not do well outdoors in
direct sun, the old leaves dying and the new ones only developing a few
inches in length.

CABOMBA

Commercially there is no doubt Cabomba is the leading aquatic
plant. Its finely-cut, fan-like, bright green leaves make a very good first
impression, although it does not live so well in the aquarium. It is
brittle and the fishes if active soon pick it to shreds. Even though this
does not occur, it becomes long, spindly, and degenerate. Enormous
quantities are gathered from ponds, some of them purposely planted,
from Pennsylvania to North Carolina.

The plant under natural conditions is a good producer of oxygen,
but in the aquarium its activity in this respect is doubtful.

Cabomba caroliniana is the species usually sold in bunches in pet
shops. It is well known as Washington Grass, Fanwort, and Water-
shield. In habit it is purely aquatic and propagates mainly by branching.
The stems in nature attain a length of several feet.

Cabomba roseajolia is a species whose principal distinguishing char-
acteristic consists of a distinct reddish hue on the stems and lower sides
of the leaves. It, too, is a handsome plant when first introduced.

ANACHARIS

Known to American aquarists as Anacharis and in Europe as Elodea,
it is also popularly called Ditchmoss, Water Pest, Water Thyme, and
Babbington's Curse. Some of the rather uncomplimentary titles are due
to a characteristic which, at least in the aquarium, should be considered
a favorable point, that is, rapid growth. It may generally be taken for
granted that if an aquatic plant is thriving it is doing good work for
the aquarium. Several species are distributed throughout the United
States and Southern Canada. A cultivated variety, probably derived
from A. canadensis, is considerably larger than the common local speci-
mens to be found. The plant grows several feet in length, sending off
occasional shoots and a few roots at random that reach down into the
soil. In the aquarium it is best to only retain from 6 to 15 inches of the
newer growth, cutting away the old ends and replanting. As the plant

AQUATIC PLANTS

37

Fig. 19. Cabomba (Life Size)

Fig. 20. Cultivated Anacharis
(Life size)

38

AQUATIC PLANTS

Fig. 21. Wild Anacharis

AQUATIC PLANTS 39

grows yellow at the old end it should be lifted out, pinching off the yellow
and replanting the fresh green portion.

Anacharis under suitable conditions no doubt lives up to its reputa-
tion as a wonderful oxygenator. It is happiest in an open pond in
Summer with a moderate amount of direct sun. Indoors it needs an
abundance of light. Placed in the aquarium in Autumn it quickly finds
itself at home and continues growth, but gradually becomes spindly and
degenerates in size. By Spring it is in need of another vacation out
doors, preferably where its roots may take hold in dirt. On the whole
we would say that the merits of Anacharis as an aquarium plant are over-
rated. As a pond plant, and when under control so as not to overrun
the place, it is a brilliant success. To be had of dealers generally.

MYRIOPHYLLUM

Here we have another plant which at first looks well in the aquarium,
but which deteriorates. It has, however, a strong redeeming feature, the
very finely divided hair-like leaves being ideal for receiving the spawn of
goldfishes. For this purpose it has grown more and more into favor. It
is used either in the bunches as they are sold, or made into a spawning-
ring as shown on page 210. As a spawn-receiving plant it has one advan-
tage over Water Hyacinth in that the individual pieces may be spread
out so as to give all the eggs a similar amount of sun, whereas with
Hyacinth one side is usually much more protected than the other, making
the eggs hatch at different times. Before using Myriophyllum to spawn
on it should be well washed by moving it about in clear water, being
careful to remove all insects, snails and snail eggs. When hatching is
finished the plant might as well be thrown away, although if rooted in an
outdoor tank or pool it will grow beautifully.

There are a number of generally distributed species throughout
America, all having the same general characteristics, but some are better
than others as "spawning grass" on account of closer and longer leaves,
Myriophyllum is popularly known as Water Milfoil.

Myriophyllum verticillatum. This is the best American species and
is found in both shallow and deep ponds throughout the United States
and Lower Canada. Its leaves are dense and crowded, making an excel-
lent spawning plant.

Myriophyllum proserpinacoides or Parrot's Feather is a partially sub-
merged form which should be allowed to creep on the surface of the
water, where its blue-green, feathery leaves display a charm exclusively
their own. Does well in the greenhouse or established on the edges of
partially shaded lakes, where it becomes very robust.

40

AQUATIC PLANTS

CERATOPHYLLUM

Hornwort, as it is generally known, is mentioned here on account
of its resemblance to Myriophyllum, for which it is sometimes gathered.
It is an extremely poor aquarium plant, being very brittle and liable to
rapid decomposition. Besides its characteristic of being fragile, it may
also be recognized by having practically no roots, absorption taking place
in the leaves.

Fig. 22. Myriophyllum

Fig. 23. Greater Bladderwort

UTRICULARIA

Many kinds of Utricularia, or Bladderwort, are distributed in the

Temperate Zone. One form has the appearance of the finely-divided

leaves of Myriophyllum, but may be identified by the small bladders

dotted throughout. Our figure 23 of U. vulgaris gives a good idea of the

AQUATIC PLANTS

41

general type. Some are thread-like. They thrive for a time in the
aquarium if given plenty of strong light. The Bladderworts are carnivo-
rous plants, trapping the microscopic lower forms of animal life in their
bladders, where they are digested. It has been claimed that they can trap
extremely small fishes, such as the young of Dwarf Gourami, but this is
very improbable. There can be no question, however, that the plant does
take living food which would be useful to young fishes, and to that extent
is objectionable. On the other hand the matted masses of the thread-like
varieties afford good hiding places for young fry.

HAIR GRASS

Eleocharis acicularis, a dainty hair-like aquatic of recent introduc-
tion, fills small tropical aquaria in a very agreeable manner. It is another

Fig. 24. Hair Grass (Life Size)

42

AQUATIC PLANTS

of those plants forming a useful adjunct to the breeding of tropical fishes.
It multiplies from short runners. Of a pleasing shade of light green,
it makes a contrasting group among other plants in a large aquarium,
but it shows to best advantage in a small aquarium by itself. It grows
from 3 to 8 inches and is native to ponds in the Middle Atlantic and
Southern States. Not often obtainable commercially.

Fig. 25. Potamogeton densus (Half size)

Fig. 26. Nitella gracilis
(Two-thirds size)

POTAMOGETON

In strong contrast to the foregoing dainty plants is Potamogeton
densus, or pondweed. As will be seen from illustration, these leaves are
broad and robust. In color they are a bright green. This variety is said
to be of European origin, but is now common in ponds in the United

AQUATIC PLANTS 43

States. If established in soil in flat pots it flourishes in a well-lighted
aquarium. Pieces collected from the wild may be introduced by fastening
into the sand. They present a very attractive appearance and will last
for quite a time, but should only be regarded as temporary and when
the leaves begin to turn yellow should be removed. There are many
widely distributed species of Potamogeton, all looking quite attractive in
a state of nature, especially P. crispus with curly leaves. They appear
very tempting, but none seem to survive long in the aquarium except
P. densus, and that only when established just to its liking.

NITELLA

Of the slender-leaved aquatics, Nitella gracilis is one of the best.
Figure 26 gives a good idea of its dainty form. It is not freely distributed,
but is found occasionally in ponds and streams in the Eastern States,
usually attached to bits of stick or stone. From this it receives its popular
name, Stonewort. In removing the plant to the aquarium, it is best to
take also the base upon which it holds. If placed in a position to its
liking, Nitella prospers wonderfully in the aquarium and is a fine oxygen-
ator. Under the microscope the leaves show the circulation of protoplasm
better than any other plant. Requires plenty of light. Not commercial.

This plant is really an Alga and has no true roots, but " holdfasts."

LUDWIGIA

Popularly known as Swamp Loosestrife, this plant in about twenty-
five species is widely and thickly distributed in North America, mostly
growing at the edges of streams, like Watercress. Although in reality
more of a bog-plant than a pure aquatic, it does well in the aquarium,
particularly if kept in the earth of the pot in which it was propagated
from a cutting. Propagation is very easy in the greenhouse. About five
short cuttings are placed in a two-inch pot, having a top layer of sand.
This is not done under water, but the pots need to be kept saturated
and the air very moist. They soon root, and when they have developed
about an inch of new growth should be submerged in the aquarium.

Ludwigia is one of the more important aquarium plants on account
of its decorative value and pronounced individuality. When kept in
a strong light the under sides of the leaves become a beautiful red color.
Wild stock is not altogether satisfactory. It throws out too many roots
to make a pleasing appearance, and in the aquarium becomes attenuated
in character. A cultivated variety said to have come from South America
is better in every respect and is easily obtained, for it is the kind propa-
gated by dealers in aquatics. As it is sold in the original pots before

44

AQUATIC PLANTS

Fig. 27. Cultivated Ludwigia (Life size)
(Now listed by botanists as Isnardia palustris)

AQUATIC PLANTS

45

being plunged into water, it can safely be sent long distances. Growing
to a length of several feet if untrimmed, it is suited to large aquaria, but
may also be kept small by pinching back. Unlike Anacharis, it should
not be trimmed at the root end unless the stock has become quite old
and no longer prospers. Does best in strong light and may also be
propagated in the aquarium from cuttings. It likes to be able to get
its upper leaves out of water. A little Ludwigia can be seen in our illus-
tration of a concrete aquarium. (Page 111.)

Jr^

Fig. 28. Carolina Spatterdock (Half Size)

SPATTERDOCK

Among the newer introductions into the aquarium are the submerged
Spatterdocks. The large arrow- or spade-shaped leaves make a very
characteristic appearance. Seedling plants gathered from lakes and ponds
in the fall will do well in the aquarium over winter. If summer leaves

46

AQUATIC PLANTS

appear and become too large for the aquarium the plant had best be
removed. The Southern Spatterdock, Nuphar sagittcefolia, does not
develop aerial leaves, but they gradually lengthen as the warm season
progresses. The illustration shows the plant in March. Later the stems
and leaves will be longer. In October a new growth starts close to the
thick, running root or rhizome. The leaves of this Spatterdock are of
the brightest green hue and do not darken in strong light. Where the
rhizomes, or thick runners, have been broken off they have a tendency to
rot, eventually killing the plant. This seems to be overcome by planting
in good soil.

Fig. 29. Japanese Spatterdock (Half she)

The Japanese Spatterdock, Alisma spec, has leaves of a considerably
darker sage green, broader at the base. It is a continuous grower, has no
aerial leaves and multiplies readily at the rhizome. Altogether a satis-
factory plant for the large aquarium.

QUILLWORT

Isoetes is a widely distributed genus of a number of species. It is
found in the mud and sand at the edges of streams and ponds. In size
it varies from a few inches to several feet. The small submerged species
are worth trying in the aquarium, as they are tenacious of life. The leaves

AQUATIC PLANTS

47

\ f/j X/ '
Fig. 30. Quillwort (Half size)

rise from the centre of a circle or rosette, producing a very pretty effect.
Quillwort should be placed in a good light. It is eaten by some snails
and fishes. Not easily obtained.

FONTINALIS

Known as Willowmoss, these plants are found attached to stones or
other substantial objects. They are of a pleasing dark-green color and
have the advantage of doing well in a subdued light, although a moderate
amount of direct sun does them no harm.

Fontinalis antipyretica grows in long-branching form, with leaves
closely adhering to the stem. It occurs in cold-water streams. Very
plentiful in some localities, but not freely distributed.

48

AQUATIC PLANTS

Fig. 31. Fontinalis gracilis
(Life size)

Fig. 32. Fontinalis antipyretica (Life size)

AQUATIC PLANTS 49

Fontinalis gracilis is very much smaller and thread-like, the leaves
being so small as to appear like a roughness on the stem. In the aquarium
this plant seems to have a faculty of soon becoming covered with sedi-
ment. Indeed, some aquarists find it useful to clear the water. As soon
as the plant becomes well covered it is taken out, rinsed off and returned.
As the stems are strong, they stand this treatment. A stone containing
a thick bunch of Fontinalis gracilis is an attractive feature in the aquar-
ium. It is a slow grower. The new leaves are bright green, but soon
turn to a dark sage color. Not often obtainable commercially.

HERPESTIS

Herpestis amplexicaulis bears a general resemblance to Moneywort,
but in essential characteristics is quite different. It is a pure aquatic with
thick leaves and a stout stem. Native to the ponds of Southeastern United
States as far as Florida. It is one of the best of the recent additions to
aquarium plants. On account of being a slow grower, its introduction is
not likely to be rapid, but once established it does very well, holding its
bright green leaves a long time. When out of the water it has a faint,
pleasant odor. Being of Southern origin, it will prosper in the tempera-
ture of tropical aquaria where some plants will not do so well, although
it thrives in cool water also. Incorrectly known as Bacopa. Stocked in
season by larger dealers.

CALLITRICHE

Floating in small, cool streams throughout the United States and
Lower Canada, one will find patches of brilliant, light-green, small leaves.
Examination will show them to be the floating leaves of a long-stemmed
plant growing in the mud. These are various forms of Callitriche, or
Spring Starwort, sometimes also called Water Funnel. When the plant
is loosened we find it disappointing, for the lower leaves are thinner and
quite different in appearance. The stems are tangled and difficult to
disengage.

Callitriche verna is the commonest form, as well as the most easily
established in the aquarium, but it shows to best advantage in shallow
tanks, where a top view can be had of the surface leaves. It should,
however, only be kept with tropical fishes unless it is intentionally given
to goldfishes to eat, as they are fond of it. The stems and roots when
taken are usually swarming with various aquatic insects and Crustacea.
Although many of these are fishfoods, it is best to rinse this and all other
plants before placing in the aquarium.

50

AQUATIC PLANTS

Fig. 33. Herpestis (Life size)

Fig. 34. Spring Starwort
(Life size)

AQUATIC PLANTS

51

HIPPURIS
Formerly used as an aquarium plant, Mare's Tail has been over-
looked of recent years, possibly on account of its tendency to stand
above the water. Used in a suitable way, this feature could be utilized

to advantage.

Not commercial.

MONEYWORT
Lysmachia nummularia, or Moneywort, is also known as Wandering
Jew, Creeping Jenny, Herb-twopence and Mouse-ear, the latter names and
Moneywort no doubt being derived from the rounded shape of the leaves.
It is very common in all the Eastern States, growing in damp places,
usually in lowlands near or bordering streams. Considering that it is
scarcely even a bog plant, it does remarkably well in the aquarium, where
it grows straight up to the surface of the water, regardless of where the
light comes from. If kept submerged the leaves gradually dwindle in
size, so that it is best to gather a new stock once a year.

LACE PLANT
This extraordinary plant, Ouvirandra jenestralis, is a native of
Madagascar. Its dark-green skeleton leaves appear very fragile, but

Fir. 35. Madagascar Lace Plant
(Half size)

52

AQUATIC PLANTS

Fig. 36. Mare's Tail (Life Size)

Fig. 37. Moneywort
(Life size)

AQUATIC PLANTS

53

in reality they are the toughest-leaved aquarium plant we know oi.
They are slow of growth and prefer a subdued light. Propagation is
by division at the root. This sometimes takes place in the aquarium,
but they do best in wooden tanks. At best they are slow growers, which
in a way is an advantage, for they eventually become rather large. The
Lace or Lattice-leaf plant is used for ornamental purposes, its qualities
as an oxygenator being negligible. Of recent years the commercial supply
has unfortunately almost disappeared.

CRYPTOCORYNE

This attractive aquarium plant is an importation from Europe.
Although introduced several years ago, it has never received the atten-
tion it seems to deserve. It is of an agreeable size and flourishes well in
a good light if not disturbed. Propagation principally by runners and
corms. The crown is at the surface of the sand.

Fig. 38. Cryptocoryne (Half size)

54

AQUATIC PLANTS

HETERANTHERA
Heteranthera zostercefolia is a very light green plant, slightly re-
sembling Anacharis, but with longer, more widely separated leaves. It is
a rapid grower, soon reaching the top, where it lies limp on the surface
of the water. Can occasionally be had of dealers.

Fig. 39. Heteranthera (Life size)

AQUATIC PLANTS

55

Fig. 42. Duckweed (Life size)

Fig. 43
Water Poppy
size)

WATER POPPY

Limnocharis humboldti has become one of the most popular plants
in the indoor and outdoor tank, as well as the large aquarium. In hot
weather and strong light it grows very rapidly and continuously sends
out new plants. Usually a new bud blooms every day. The three-petaled
yellow flower with a brown eye or centre only lasts a few hours, but is a
most pleasing and aesthetic flower. The parent plant should be potted,
preferably not very deeply in the water. The new plants run at the
surface, occasionally sending down strong runners to obtain a fresh
rooting. Can be had of the larger dealers in aquatic plants.

56

AQUATIC PLANTS

AZOLLA

Azolla caroliniana is one of the less-used of small floating aquatics.
It is not in any way a brilliant plant, but has a rather quaint charm.
The leaves are of velvety appearance and range from a dull sage-green
to dark red, according to age and the conditions of light. To be had
of some dealers. Native to the Southern States.

CRYSTALWORT

Riccia jiuitans grows in masses. It floats just beneath the surface
and is valuable in the propagation of small tropical fishes, some depositing
eggs in it, and the new-born young of the live-bearing varieties using it
for hiding places.

Riccia is an extremely active oxygenator and when in masses holds
large bubbles of oxygen well into the night, until absorbed by the water.
A valuable characteristic. The plant likes a few hours of sun. Native
to the Eastern States and may be had of dealers in aquatics.

DUCKWEED

This commonest of all floating plants is found in several species in
still pools everywhere. From the middle of summer until cold weather
many ponds are completely covered with its green mantle, greatly inter-
fering with the work of collecting daphnia for fishfood. Duckweed itself
is a good food for goldfishes large enough to eat it, and has a laxative
effect beneficial to the finer breeds. The form most commonly found
is Lemna minor. Propagation is by offshoot extensions.

SALVINIA

Of the small floating aquatics Salvinia is one of the best. The heart-
shaped leaves with bristle-like growth on the upper surface seem like

Fig. 44. Salvinia (Life size)

Fig. 45. Trianea
(Slightly reduced)

AQUATIC PLANTS

57

bits of velvet connected by a thread. The roots are naturally long for
the size of the plant, but fishes usually eat them down to about half
length, which interferes with a full development of plant. In the green-
house, where they have a moist atmosphere and no interference, they
develop with great rapidity. The variety illustrated, Salvinia natans, is
native to Europe and is the variety commonly used.

Although it is claimed that neither Salvinia nor the common wild
Duckweed performs any oxygenating function, the author and others
have many times seen aquaria completely covered with either of these
plants and, with no other plants in the aquarium, the fishes were getting
along perfectly well— a state of affairs which would be impossible if the
water were blanketed over by an inert substance.

TRIANEA
Trianea bogotensis is an attractive, small floating plant with thick,
heart-shaped leaves. It needs a moist warm atmosphere and not too
much direct sun. Under these conditions it thrives and is a valued
feature in the summer pool or greenhouse tank. It is not found locally
in temperate climate, but may occasionally be had of dealers.

FROGBIT

Hydrocharis morsus-ranoe, requiring the same conditions as Trianea
bogotensis, deserves more attention than it is receiving. Of very pretty

z2E^

| Fig. 46

"I Frogbit (Life size)

ViMwrn^

58

AQUATIC PLANTS

appearance when in flower, there is no reason why it should not be better
known. As will be noted in illustration, it propagates from runners, but
the seeds also germinate under favorable conditions. The plant is of
European introduction.

WATER LETTUCE

Pistia stratiotes is a floating plant with fluted, light-green, velvety
leaves, forming a rosette. It likes plenty of heat, a moist atmosphere
and protection from the sun. Under favorable conditions it grows to
a diameter of about four inches or more and is very attractive indeed.

Z^3iR®£3BmBBi&

a w* * » i n a nttarr^

^

''IV^'

Fig. 47. Water Lettuce (Two-thirds size)

The roots sometimes attain a length of eighteen inches, but they are not
sufficiently dense to use for spawning purposes. Multiplies rapidly in a
congenial environment, but degenerates and dies out in a dry atmosphere.
Obtainable from the larger dealers in aquatic plants.

WATER FERN

Not looking particularly fern-like, the Water Fern, Ceratopteris
thalictroides, is the only truly aquatic species of the fern family. It is
of comparatively recent introduction into the aquarium and indoor pool,
and is more suited to the latter. In a partially shaded position in the
greenhouse it grows into floating masses a foot or more in diameter,

AQUATIC PLANTS

59

piling up to some height on account of its peculiar means of reproduction,
the new plants springing directly out of the parent leaves, as pictured
in illustration. Ordinarily the plants are about six inches in diameter
and are of very pleasing appearance. Native to the tropics around the
world.

3C53:TW^'i)^t--=^-

%

Y) } ^WS&suisi±.

jji || 'UU! 'If.

£J\ /, -i ;n — rrryi V~

h_ ^

Fig. 48. Water Fern (Reduced one-half)

Fig. 49. Water Chestnut (Two-thirds size)

60 AQUATIC PLANTS

WATER CHESTNUT
Probably obtaining its popular name from the serrated edges of the
leaves somewhat resembling those of the Chestnut tree, Trapa natans
forms one of the pleasing varieties among floating aquatics. It is an
annual doing well in exposed outdoor positions. New plants are pro-
duced each year from large, hard seeds. The big, black, two-horned seeds
sometimes sold in Chinese stores are of a closely related species of Trapa.
Can be had of the larger dealers after May 15.

WATER HYACINTH

Although Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia, is considered a pest in its
native habitat on account of clogging up rivers and lakes, it is none the
less a favorite with the aquarist, especially the breeder of goldfishes. Its
long, finely divided, dense roots are admirable for receiving the eggs
of any fishes that spawn on plants. The pale purple flower-spike only
blooms for a single day, but is quite beautiful, having the general form
of its namesake, the Hyacinth. Propagation is by runners at the surface
of the water. Water Hyacinths do best if their roots can enter or drag
in soil. Outdoors they do not like to be blown about nor to strike against
the sides of a tank, although apparently not minding how closely they
are crowded together. This plant does well in a warm greenhouse the
year round. Unless supplied with plenty of light and heat during the
winter it degenerates very much.

WATER SNOWFLAKE

Limnanthemum indicum is one of the most charming of the small
floating aquatics. White, star-like flowers of 1-inch diameter are freely
borne above the water. Parent plant should be rooted in soil near surface.

WATER LILIES
Fish pools or large tanks standing in the sun should have water
lilies growing in them. They are of easy culture and not only give protec-
tion to the fish from excessive sun and from bird enemies, but add greatly
to appearances. Small or large varieties may be had, according to the
needs of the space. Water lilies are divided into tender and hardy varie-
ties, and the tenders are sub-divided into day-blooming and night-bloom-
ing kinds. The tenders are very decidedly the more free-blooming and
the day-blooming tenders are the more fragrant, as well as presenting
the greater range of color. They usually open in the fore part of the
morning and close in mid-afternoon. The night-bloomers open in the
evening and close about nine in the morning. They are not fragrant nor

Fig. 50. Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes major)

Showing Offshoot of New Plant

Flower in Detail Shown in Inset

61

Fig. 51. Water Snowflake ( Limnanthemum indicum)

62

Fig. 52. Hardy White Water Lily (Tuberosa richardsoni)

63

Fig. S3. Nelumbium speciosum
The Sacred Lotus of the Orient, from 4 to 7 feet in height, is easily the most mae
nificent of aquatics with leaves and flowers above the water.

64

AQUATIC PLANTS 65

as elegant as the day-bloomers, but they are called the business man's
water lily, because he can see them in bloom in the evening and in the
morning.

Water lilies like extremely rich soil. A mixture of half clay and half
cow manure suits them very well. An inch top layer of sand will prevent
any of this soil from getting into the water. The crown of the plant
should not be covered and ought to be about 8 inches below the surface
of the water for tenders, and 8 to 20 inches for hardys. They need an
abundance of sunlight.

Before freezing weather sets in, the tender plants should be taken up.
Close to the main root will usually be found a few tubers about the size
of shellbarks. These are the starts for next season's plants. They are
to be broken off and slowly dried. In April they may be laid in shallow,
warm water in the sun until sprouted, then placed in submerged pots,
and later permanently planted out in June.

Hardy water lily roots only need to be kept moist and from actual
freezing. In a pond they may be left out. In early spring they form
a number of new crowns. Every two or three years the parent root
should be cut up into pieces, allowing a crown to each piece. Plant only
one crown to a pot. Let all water lily pots be as large as space will
permit. Most tenders will grow and bloom in a seven-inch bulb pan in
an ordinary tub, but they are dwarfed from lack of space. They will do
better in an open pool planted in a box about a foot deep by thirty
inches square. Tropical water lilies show a surprising degree of intelli-
gence in adapting themselves to the size of the pool they are in, reducing
leaf and flower to accommodate themselves to the available space. The
ordinary hardy water lily if given as much space as it can use will have
a surface diameter of about five feet. The usual tropicals spread from
ten to fifteen feet, but will do well in pools of six-foot diameter.

There are but few firms specializing in aquatic plants. Their names
can usually be found in the advertising pages of the aquarium magazines
listed in the end of this book. The catalogues of these firms contain
much valuable information as to suitable plants for different conditions
and purposes.

OTHER POND PLANTS

Lotuses (Nelumbiums). Album grandiflorum (white), Luteum
(yellow), Speciosum (rose), Pekinensis (red).

The culture of Nelumbiums requires more root-space than for water
lilies. Planted in a shallow pond where they have plenty of space for
the strong roots to branch out and travel, they prosper amazingly. They

66 AQUATIC PLANTS

are hardy over winter, and if it is desired to confine them to a certain
space or locality they should be boarded in or otherwise divided from
the rest of the pond. The roots go several feet deep. The Lotus is one
of the most beautiful of all decorative plants. Its magnificent leaves and
flowers swaying majestically in the summer breezes convince us that this
plant well deserves the prominent place it has been accorded in the
literary classics throughout history.

Bog Plants. Among the best of the bog and pond plants are Varie-
gated Sweet Flag, Cape Pond Weed, Marsh Marigold, Umbrella Plant,
Cyperus papyrus, Water Arum, Pickerel Weed, Sagittaria japonica, Sagit-
taria montevidiensis, and Lizard's Tail.

It is safer to use no fertilizer in planting bog plants.

ENEMIES OF AQUATIC PLANTS

The most serious enemies are muskrats. These eat the roots of
several hardy aquatics, particularly over the winter season. They are
partial to the roots of the small yellow water lily, Pygmaea helvola.

Fig. 54. Aquatic Cutworm in its Case

A leaf-cutting worm (Hydrocampa), sometimes becomes quite a
nuisance. It cuts a piece from the edge and, laying it on the leaf, attaches
the two together and uses the two pieces as a cocoon. Loose bits of
water lily leaves, Sagittaria, etc., observed floating around will, if pried
apart, often be found to contain this white worm. The illustration is
life size. They should be hunted out and destroyed. They are the larvae
of a moth which can be caught at night by use of a fly paper lamp shade.
The light bulb itself should also be banded with the paper. Sticky side
out in both cases.

Plant Lice. Several varieties of aphis, or plant lice, attack aquatic
plants. A few on water lily leaves seem to do no harm, but sometimes
large colonies rapidly develop on the standing leaves of plants like
Sagittaria in such numbers as to kill the leaves. If fishes are present in
the water, the use of chemical spray is too dangerous. A stiff spray from
a hose nozzle will dislodge most of them. If one wishes to take the
trouble they can be wiped off the plants and killed.

In an aquarium they can be eliminated by wiping the glass above the
water edge and then floating a piece of newspaper on the surface, cut to
completely cover it. This will drown the remaining aphis in an hour.

CHAPTER THREE

Fishfoods

Prepared Fishfoods Living Fishfoods ^

k Wffi^^j&VgSC^k'XjR

PREPARED FISHFOODS

Of recent years a number of careful experiments have been made
as to the best and cheapest foods to be used at food-fish farms. The re-
sults of these tests confirm in a general way the principles borne in mind
by most of our manufacturers of food for aquarium fishes. At the same
time it must be admitted that we are a long way from any exact knowl-
edge on the subject, so far as the aquarium is concerned, especially as to
the actual comparative merits of different compounds in dried foods. The
condition of a fish is dependent on so many factors other than the in-
gredients of its food that it is difficult to arrive at scientific conclusions
in this matter. The question of food quantity is one of them. A fish fed
the proper quantity of a poor food will be better off than one fed an
improper quantity of a good one. This fact could easily bring us to a
false conclusion regarding the merits of the two foods in question.

The author, after thirty years of observation among fanciers and
breeders, together with his own experiments, believes that any reasonably
balanced food is satisfactory; that no food however excellent can coun-
teract incorrect aquarium conditions or practices; that when there is
sickness among fishes, the kind of food is the last place to look for the
trouble. A strange statement with which to open a chapter on an im-
portant subject, but undoubtedly sound.

When one observes that among a large number of successful fanciers
scarcely two use the same fishfood, but all practice virtually the same
principles in aquarium management, it is not difficult to place the em-
phasis where it belongs.

We do know a few facts about foods for aquarium fishes. The rest
is guesswork, based on principles which in the main are probably correct.

Nearly all aquarium fishes naturally desire a variety of foods, and
the nearer we can approximate Nature in this matter, the better will be
our results. Whatever foods we employ we should always keep in mind
the necessary balance of vegetable, animal and mineral content required

68 FISHFOOD

The most popularly known food is the white wafer, made of rice
flour and white-of-egg. This is used by novice goldfish fanciers every-
where. Experts consider it too limited in its content. Also any uneaten
surplus quickly clouds the water. There is no denying, however, that
many persons have kept fish well for years by feeding wafer in small
enough quantities so that there is no surplus.

Better foods have been placed on the market, most pet stores keep-
ing at least one of them. They are granular in form, usually of a dark
color and are composed of a mixture of dried insects, meat, fish roe, flour,
codfish and other ingredients. Unless one needs a large quantity it is
better to purchase a prepared article of the sort described, rather than to
undertake its manufacture.

A very good fishfood is puppy biscuit broken up and ground to
small sizes in a coffee mill. This is cheaper than regular fishfood and is
very satisfactory. It is used as a base by many dealers in which to add
a few ingredients and then place it on the market under special labels.
If one uses this biscuit in quantity it may be had cheaply in bushel lots
from manufacturers who save broken pieces for this purpose and grind
it to size.

A food used with considerable success is oatmeal prepared exactly
as it comes to the breakfast table, containing the same amount of salt.
This is especially recommended for feeding young goldfishes when
daphnia have become scarce. The shape of a goldfish is permanently in-
fluenced in its body development in the first few months, and different
methods of feeding produce, to a certain extent, different shapes. The
effect of oatmeal, fed plentifully, is to build the short, round body so
generally desired. For fishes under ten weeks old the oatmeal should be
squeezed through cheesecloth to take out the kernels. Let the young fishes
have as much as they can eat all day, but let no food remain over night.
This does not apply to fishes in their second year or over, although oat-
meal in much smaller quantity is good for them also.

An improvement on boiled oatmeal is secured by adding a moderate
portion of powdered shrimp, dried fish roe, dried mussel flesh or pow-
dered shredded codfish. For preparation of ingredients, see page 70.

Dried bread crumbs make good food for goldfishes, or for vegetarian
wild fishes, especially when Graham or whole-wheat bread is used. If
one is out of other fishfood this will be found, for a time, a convenient
and satisfactory substitute.

Practically all fishes enjoy scrambled eggs. Beyond doubt it is a
fine change from dried foods, possessing both nutritive and laxative
qualities. A little Cream-of-Wheat or Cream-of-Barley mixed in before

FISHFOOD 69

scrambling increases the bulk and improves the balance of the food.
For those who, like the author, had to learn to scramble an egg, we give
the method : Beat the egg, add a bit of salt and a tablespoonful of milk
or water to make it more tender. Stir in teaspoonful of the cereal if de-
sired. Pour into saucepan which had been thinly greased with butter and
place over a moderate fire, stirring rapidly to prevent sticking. It will
be finished very quickly. In feeding it should be somewhat broken up.
The slight grease on the water does no harm and soon disappears. The
beaten egg may be rendered into greaseless flakes by slowly pouring into
boiling water while stirring. Add a little salt to the water, as well as
the egg. Gather flakes by pouring through tea-strainer.

Finely chopped crisp lettuce leaves are eagerly taken by many fishes,
no doubt to their benefit.

Boiled spinach as prepared for the table, chopped finely, is enjoyed,
especially by goldfishes. It seems to have a distinct laxative effect.

In feeding any kind of dried granular food it is best to use small
sizes. Water causes large grains to swell considerably. This sometimes
produces indigestion when the food swells after being swallowed. Some
fanciers scald dry food just before feeding, which is possibly a good prac-
tice, although it may wash out some of the "flavor."

It might be well to repeat here that the use in the aquarium of
pebbles without sand is inadvisable because granular food lodges in the
stones, where it cannot be reached by the fishes, eventually decomposing
and fouling the water.

For those wishing to make a general fishfood suitable for all except
strictly carnivorous fishes, the following recipe will be found to be very
good:

Quarter tumbler powdered cod

Three-quarters tumbler powdered shrimp

Three tumblers flour

One teaspoonful Epsom salts

Three teaspoonfuls baking powder

Three teaspoonfuls powdered chalk

Add two raw eggs and sufficient water to make the mixture into the
usual consistency of bread dough. Place in pan and bake like bread in
oven. When properly baked allow to cool and cut into thin slices. After
thoroughly drying slices, grind in coffee mill and sift into desired sizes.
Place all dry fish-foods immediately after manufacture in well-secured
jars or other actually tight receptacles. Moths, flies and other insects

70 FISHFOOD

gain a foothold and soon turn the food into a mass of worms and worthless
dirt. If one has a large stock of such food it is a good plan to store it
in the coldest possible place over winter, which will either kill the insects
or reduce their activity.

In foregoing recipe, cod is prepared by purchasing a package of
shredded cod, drying in a slow oven and grinding fine in a coffee mill.
This is very easily done. Dried shrimp may be had at Chinese grocery
stores. It needs to be broken in pieces, put through a coarse setting of
the mill, then well dried for a few days and lastly ground fine. A fine
grade of dried shrimp ready for grinding is obtainable from German
dealers at low cost. There are several wholesalers of dried shrimp in
New Orleans, Louisiana.

Whole wheat flour is preferable to white flour.

Those desiring to experiment on a food according to their own ideas
of ingredients and proportions may safely use any of the following items
in addition to those already mentioned; Pea flour, rice flour, rye flour,
vermicelli, boiled fish, boiled yellow of egg, fine corn meal, ant eggs,
chopped earthworms, water crackers, dried bread, dried blood, chopped
meal worms, dried and powdered lettuce leaves, dried fish roe and dried
daphnia. In preparing the latter two ingredients they should be par-
boiled with a moderate amount of salt, then placed in cheesecloth, water
squeezed out, spread out thin on tin plates and dried quickly in the sun
or slow oven. The drying must be thorough and quick. In drying it will
be found that the shrinkage in volume will be very great. It should,
therefore, be remembered that they are highly concentrated and to be
used accordingly. The same is true of dried blood, which may be pur-
chased of seedsmen.

A very simply prepared fishfood on which the author's fish thrive is
made by mixing two tumblers finely powdered puppy biscuit, quarter
tumbler each of powdered cod and powdered dried shrimp. Add, say,
a teaspoonful of powdered agar-agar. Prepare boiling water, but first stir
the dry mixture over a fire in a saucepan a short time to warm it. The
object of this is to prevent the boiling water from being chilled by the
mixture before it has made sure of killing any larvae which may be
present. Now stir in the boiling water until the mass is moist all through,
but not quite wet. After it has partially cooled, mix in a beaten raw egg.
If this does not thin the mixture sufficiently for smooth spreading, add
sufficient water or milk. The ladies of the household may object to using
the inside of the pie plates for drying fish-food, so use the bottoms.

FISH FOOD 71

Spread to about a quarter inch thick. Stand them in the sun or on
radiators to partially dry. Better select radiators at the top of the house
and pick a time when the rest of the family is out, especially if they
have keen nostrils. In about two hours, when the surface has become a
little dry and caked, separate the food from pie plates with a thin knife,
placing the dry side down on either newspaper or fine screen. Either
replace over radiator, or in sun or in slow oven until bone dry. Grind to
suitable sizes and save the finest sifted powder for baby fishes.

The author prefers slow oven or radiator drying to sun drying because
there is less chance of fly eggs being deposited in the food. On the other
hand too much oven heat drives some of the virtue out of the ingredients.

An important point about such foods is this : If a quantity is made
to last a considerable time, only that part of it should be ground that
will be used in a few months. In coarse pieces it is much less liable to
attack by insects and their larvae. If bone-dry and placed in tight preserve
jars it will last for years.

Dried fishfoods should be sifted through suitable screens to sizes
desired for use. There is always a considerable amount of fine powder
which is declined by many of the larger fishes, and which is liable to do
harm unless found by the snails or other scavengers. The powder and
very small grains can be fed to the young stock, or to breeding snails.

When fishes have been without fresh or living food for some time it is
well to occasionally give them a small quantity of dark, soft part of
oysters, chopped and slightly rinsed. Fresh shrimp, obtainable in most
fish markets in winter, if passed through a fine meat chopper, makes an
excellent change of diet. Canned shrimp has come to be a fishfood
of decided value. Several of the fishes which otherwise demand live
food take this readily and thrive on it, notably Pterophyllum scalare
and the Banded Sunfish, the only other prepared food these two seem
to relish being scrambled egg. This is something of a coincidence, as
a similarity is often noted between the general appearance and move-
ments of these really very different fishes. After opening a can of
shrimp keep contents dry in a covered saucer in refrigerator. It keeps
about three days. Canned salmon, with a little of the surplus oil washed
away, is a very good fishfood, in fact one of the best.

One of the most relished tidbits for your aquarium fishes is flakes
of boiled fish, just as it comes from the table, especially a tender steak-
fish like cod or halibut. Cutting with scissors across the grain minces it
well. Same for crab meat.

A crushed oyster crab or a canned shrimp suspended from a thread
makes a choice morsel for tropical fishes to pick at.

72 FISHFOOD

LIVING FISHFOODS

It may safely be said in general that fishes do better on living foods
than on an artificially prepared diet. The difference seems to be about
the same as that between canned and fresh food in our own experience.
The living foods which are really of practical merit and which are so
universally distributed as to make their mention here of value are few in
number. They are infusoria, daphnia, mosquito larvae, flies and earth-
worms.

Earthworms. Also known as angleworms, gardenworms, rainworms,
and groundworms. It would be difficult to overstate the value of these
worms to aquarium fishes, especially to highly developed goldfishes. They
are a one hundred per cent, natural food and are somewhat laxative in
effect. Correspondents have many times asked the author to diagnose
their fish troubles when all conditions are apparently correct. The usual
advice is to try feeding earthworms if possible, and in a majority of cases
the trouble disappears. Worms from one to three inches long are best.
The large sizes become tough. Personal judgment will have to be used
as to whether to cut the worms, and to what sizes. The pieces should be
easily swallowed. It is unnecessary to wash or scald them, notwith-
standing some contrary theories on the subject. Fishes can apparently
eat more worms without injury to themselves than they can of prepared
foods, but this is also true of the other live foods. All they can consume
at a meal does not appear to be too much. The difficulty is more likely
to be in keeping up the supply, especially over winter. One should collect
as large a stock as possible in the early fall, storing in damp, loose earth
in a large box kept cool but not cold. Occasional bits of mashed potato
placed in the soil will be eaten by the worms. It should be without salt,
preferably.

There are two principal kinds of angleworms, the earthworm or
gardenworm here referred to, which is of a solid pinkish red color, and
the dungworm, the body of which is marked with red rings, and which
exudes an unpleasant yellow secretion when handled or cut. These are
not so tempting as bait for wild fishes, and the aquarium fishes show the
same preference for the gardenworm. The dungworm is found in manure
piles and in heavily manured soil. It has the advantage of being more
readily obtained in winter. By placing in moist sphagnum or other moss
for a few days it is claimed they lose some of the unpleasant odor. The
writer cannot vouch for this. Earthworms form a satisfactory substitute
for daphnia in raising goldfishes if one has the opportunity of securing
a large and continuous supply, this of course meaning after the fish is
large enough to take finely chopped pieces, which should be in about
six weeks.

FISHFOOD 73

Daphnia. Among the breeders of aquarium fishes, Daphnia holds
the supreme place of importance as a fish food. The fish will consume
great quantities of these crustaceans without suffering the usual effects of
being overfed. A certain degree of care must be exercised not to place
so many daphnia into the aquarium as to suffocate the fishes. Daphnia
breathe the free oxygen in water the same as do fish and therefore too
many will soon exhaust oxygen from water. The fish will die of suffoca-
tion sooner than the daphnia. Many beginners have lost fish in this way.
A good practice is to give the fish all they can eat in about a quarter of
an hour and still leave some few daphnia swimming about.

A popular name for daphnia is "ditch fleas." This will give a hint

Fig. SS Fig. 56 Fig. 57 Fig. 58

Fig. 55. Daphnia (Greatly enlarged)

Fig. 56

Mosquito Larva (Greatly enlarged)

Egg Raft and Individual Eggs (Greatly enlarged)

Pupa Before Transforming to Mosquito (Greatly enlarged)

Fig. 57. Cyclops (Greatly enlarged)

Fig. 58. Cypris (Greatly enlarged)

as to their appearance, as they are approximately the size and shape of a
flea, except that they have two rather long, branched swimming arms
which are always in motion and which give the animal a sort of hopping
motion through the water. Without this perpetual swimming the daphnia
would sink to the bottom, as they are heavier than water and have no
air bladder. A greatly magnified illustration is shown in Fig. 67.

Daphnia (pronounced "daffney" in the vernacular) are known among
fish breeders as "insects," but they are really not such, being perfect
freshwater crustaceans as much as a crayfish. The shell, though soft, can-
not be digested. This helps the digestible portions to pass through the
intestines. This little creature is found in freshwater nearly all over the
world, principally in still pools where there are no fishes. For the

74 FISHFOOD

practical purpose of catching daphnia in sufficient quantities to feed fish
the collector should hunt pools in which there is considerable animal or
vegetable decomposition in process. Such conditions are found to perfec-
tion in the pools on the ground where city refuse is dumped. When the
conditions are favorable the daphnia rise to the surface in such quantities
as to color the water, the usual color being a rusty red. The color varies
from this to olive and gray. Fish breeders like to see the daphnia as
bright a red as possible, although it is an open question as to whether
the red ones are better food. The same individuals will alternate in color,
probably due to a difference in food. Usually these crustaceans are not
so plentiful as to color the water, and we have to use our eyes more
closely to locate them. The collector should provide himself with a
cheesecloth net about 12 inches in diameter and 15 inches deep, fastened
on a pole or jointed handle not less than 6 feet long. If an examination
of the water does not at first reveal any daphnia, the net should be tried
anyhow, using a gentle stirring motion back and forth, to stir up the
bottom water. Daphnia have very peculiar habits, and one can never
tell from day to day just how they are to be found, so that the collector
will always have to depend somewhat on his own resources. If an ex-
amination of the net after dipping for a few minutes shows nothing, try
elsewhere. If a swarm has been located do not take too many into
the net at one time, as the weight of the top ones crushes those beneath.
A mass that would bulk about equivalent to a small orange should not
be exceeded. Reverse net into pail of water and repeat until the water
is thick with daphnia. In cool weather the pail may be carried in this
crowded condition for about an hour. If the day is hot, a piece of ice
should be added to the water— enough to keep temperature down until
home is reached. Newspaper wrapped about the can helps the ice to last
longer. As soon as home is reached, add fresh water to the pail and
transfer the daphnia to tubs or tanks kept for the purpose. Like fish,
the water they are in should have as much air surface as possible. Do
not try to keep too many in stock, as overcrowding suffocates a number
and these, in turn, decomposing, kill the living ones. The cooler they
are kept, the longer they will last. In hot weather they can be kept about
three days and in October about two weeks.

In transferring from carrying pails to stock tanks it is well to first
pour in small portions to a white enamel basin, which enables one to
carefully go over the catch and remove any insect enemies. (See page
96.) If the daphnia are too thick to be readily examined, some water
should be added. A little care in keeping out the enemies at the start is
energy well invested. Most of the enemies and the dirt may be sifted
out (under water) by using a screen just large enough for the daphnia.

FISHFOOD

75

A beginner will do well to make the acquaintance of an experienced
daphnia collector and go along with him on a trip. There are now
aquarium societies in many of the large cities, part of their activities
being the dissemination of such knowledge. All those interested should
have active or corresponding membership in such an organization.

All beginners seem to develop the idea that sufficient daphnia to feed
with can be raised in a tub or trough. This has been tried many times,
but seldom with any degree of success. If the daphnia pools are too
distant to make collecting practicable it is best to try to inoculate some
suitable pond nearby, but there should be no fish in the pond. Daphnia,
if not crowded, may be shipped quite a distance.

The practical way to raise daphnia for food purposes is described
in the chapter on Wholesale Breeding (page 217).

A Method of Carrying Live Food growing in favor is to crate
them (without water) in layers in a tin box. Frames about 10 x 12 inches,
made of Ji-'m. square wood, are covered on one side with thin muslin.
These are floated, the daphnia dropped in, spread out evenly while the
raft is floating, then carefully lifted and placed in carrying box, which,

Fig. 59. Carrying Case and Live-Food Trays

of course, needs to be airtight. The number of layers is only limited
by the depth of the box. Daphnia may be spread to a depth of about
J^-inch, but mosquito larvae may be piled to }4-inch without injury.
This method avoids carrying the great weight of water needed in collecting
pails, and, in the experience of the writer, gets a higher percentage of
the food home alive. If spread out thinly and in a cool temperature in
October they have been kept alive in a moist condition on the rafts in
storage for two days. The only disadvantage is the chance that the rafts,

76 FISHFOOD

if not watched, may blow across the collecting pond. If the rafts are
dried immediately after using and all daphnia cleaned out from between
the fabric and the wood, they will last several seasons. The bottom frame
is usually blank, so that the slightly sagging cloth on the one above will
have drainage and not stand in the shallow water bound to collect in
the bottom of can. Drainage could, of course, be obtained by placing
small blocks on the bottom frame.

Cyclops. We list these crustaceans because they are so widely dis-
tributed and because they are actually a food for those fishes which can
catch them. A little smaller than daphnia, they move through the water
in straight lines with a jumping motion. The shape is also different, as
will be noted in the illustration. The two tabs at the tail are not always
present, these being egg pouches which drop off. Cyclops are carnivorous.
They devour infusoria. It is also a belief that they kill newly hatched
fishes, possibly by getting into the gills, so that there is some doubt as to
whether this animal should be listed as a fishfood or an enemy. They
are introduced into the aquarium with daphnia and are seldom entirely
eradicated except by small, active fishes.

Flies. While it is usually a difficult matter catching enough flies
with which to feed fishes, they are really a splendid food and should be
used if opportunity offers. Fishes soon get to looking for these delicate
morsels after sampling them a few times. Cutting the wings off with
scissors is undoubtedly painless and makes the fly "stay put" on the
water. Those freshly killed with "fly swatters" are as good as live flies,
except for feeding lizards, etc.

Small crickets and small soft grasshoppers are also very acceptable
to fishes able to eat them.

Mosquito Larvae. These are often known as "wrigglers" and are
familiar to those who have looked in rain barrels. Their bodies are
straight and about a quarter of an inch long. Most of them rest at an
angle to the surface of the water with head down as shown in Fig. 56,
and are always ready to "wriggle" to the bottom at the first sign of
danger. From midsummer on they may be found in still water where
there are no fishes. They are taken in the same manner as daphnia,
except that one has to get them with a quick sweep before they can get
down into the water. They can usually be seen floating together in black
masses. The city entomologist, whose duty it is to rid a community of
mosquitoes, will give information as to where they may be obtained and
will be glad to have his burdens lightened by the fish breeder.

Mosquito larvae may be termed a special food. It can only be had
in large quantities towards the middle and end of summer, and is only

FISH FOOD 77

suited to the fish large enough to easily swallow it. As a food for putting
growth on fish an inch long or over it probably has no equal. The main
drawback to these larvae is that those not eaten quickly by the fish are
liable to turn to mosquitoes. This difficulty can be minimized by proper
management. Keep the stock of larvae in a tank covered by a sheet of
glass, leaving about two inches at one end not covered. Over this open
space place a piece of mosquito netting, drawing it up several inches over
the opening into a sort of inverted bag. Then draw a string around top
edge of tank to secure netting. As the mosquitoes hatch they will fly
upward into the netting bag, where they may be killed before lifting
the lid to get larvae for the fish. The author usually keeps these larvae
in a 5-gallon drinking water bottle, half filled, and with a bit of netting
over the top, secured by a rubber band. To get larvae, remove netting,
place hand over opening and quickly invert bottle. The larvae in their
excitement swim downwards into neck of bottle. Release hand and
empty the required quantity. Return bottle to upright position, replace
netting and add water to make up to former level. When most of the
larvae have been used and a number of mosquitoes remain in the bottle,
fill with water (through the netting) and they will be drowned. A
netting bag trap secured on neck of bottle will also catch the majority
of the mosquitoes.

The larvae should be kept out of the sun and in as cool a situation
as possible so as to retard the hatching. They will stand great crowding,
their only requirement being that there is room for them all to get to
the surface at one time, for they breathe air. This is one advantage
in placing larvae with fish, for, unlike daphnia, they extract no oxygen
from the water. By feeding them to the fish we not only do well for
the fish, but serve the interests of humanity by cutting down the mosquito
pest. In open pools goldfishes are one of the best agents in keeping the
neighborhood free of mosquitoes. Unfortunately the mosquito larvae
can live and hatch in temporary pools and in water too foul for any
fish to survive in.

Cypris. Incorrectly known as "hardshell daphnia," cypris forms an
important article of fish diet. These Crustacea inhabit stagnant pools,
particularly those well stocked with decomposing vegetal matter. Al-
though capable of swimming freely they are more apt to remain close
to the bottom, but more especially to decaying wood. They are of a
dull, purplish black or reddish color about the size of an ordinary pin-
head. Inexperienced observers frequently mistake them for daphnia.
Fishes do not appear to be quite so fond of them as of daphnia, but
they are a good second choice. They are extremely hardy and will
withstand dense overcrowding in the foulest of water. Under favorable

78 FISHFOOD

conditions cypris multiplies with astounding rapidity. It has been claimed
that they devour spawn and young fishes. This is undoubtedly an error,
but they do greatly annoy snails and eventually cause their death by
getting into some inner recesses of the animal.

Blood Worms. In freshwater pools nearly everywhere can be found
deep-red, jointed worms about half an inch long. They usually stay at

Fig. 60. Bloodworm (Enlarged four times)

the bottom, living chiefly on decomposing vegetal matter. Often they
will writhe their way awkwardly through the water in a series of figure
eights. They are the larvae of midges and form an important article
of diet for our native fishes. They are often found in large numbers
in daphne pools and should always be taken when possible. If too
large for the young fishes, they make choice morsels for the older ones.
Tubifex Worms. These are small thread-like worms living in mud
and sand. They form a tube or case below the surface, extending the
upper ends of their bodies from this in search of small organic food,
causing a circulation of water about themselves by a constant weaving

Fig. 61. Tubifex Worms (Magnified, and as they appear to the naked eye)

motion. When alarmed they draw back into the case. They are exten-
sively cultivated in Europe as a food for tropical fishes. A similar variety
is often introduced into goldfish aquaria when feeding daphnia, where
they become an unsightly nuisance, for goldfishes cannot catch them. To
get rid of them it is necessary to boil or renew the sand or else keep other
fishes in the aquarium for a long time. The worms have to be eaten off
many times before the stock dies. Germicides strong enough to kill them
will also destroy the plants, as they can withdraw into the sand. Along
the edges of ditches they are often so numerous as to make a solid rusty-
red color. If they are scraped up together with the mud and then washed
free they are greatly enjoyed by gold and tropical fishes, but it is inadvis-
able to introduce them where there is sand or soil.

Infusoria and Rotifera. Of prime importance as food for very small
fishes are the Infusoria and other microscopic creatures in water. Some
idea of their minuteness may be had when it is pointed out that they

FISHFOOD 79

are the natural food of cyclops and other small crustaceans. All except
the very largest of the infusorians will pass through ordinary cheese-
cloth nets, but silk bolting-cloth of fine texture will hold those which

Fig. 62 Fig. 63 Fig. 64

Asplanchnopus myrmelco Pterodina patina Noteus quadracornis

Typical Rotifers (Greatly magnified)

are large enough to be of real use. Further information on this point is
contained on page 129. Infusoria are shown in Fig. 109.

Freshwater Shrimp (Gammarus). While this shrimp is not plenti-
ful enough anywhere to feed in large quantities, it is a delicate morsel for
grown fishes and should be taken as opportunity offers. They are found
principally in small streams, under stones and around decaying wood
under water.

Fig. 65. Freshwater Shrimp (Enlarged three times)

Placed in a large aquarium or tank with plenty of vegetation they will
multiply rapidly.

Enchytra?. Thread-like small white worms usually bred in winter
as a substitute for daphnia for feeding to tropical fishes. Goldfishes are
also very fond of them, but it is a difficult matter to cultivate a sufficiently
large quantity to satisfy the appetite of several goldfishes. For some of
the smaller fishes requiring living food they are almost indispensable
in winter.

The culture of these worms is quite easy and requires very little
attention after the start is made. Many dealers and fanciers have a
supply of enchytrae, from whom a stock can be procured at a slight
expense. These are placed in ordinary garden soil from which all worms
and larvae have been carefully removed. Wooden or earthenware boxes
about 15 inches long, 7 inches wide and 6 inches deep may be filled with
earth to a depth of 4 inches. A cover glass must be provided, this sitting
directly on the soil. Proper feeding is the principal keynote to success.
They like thick sour milk, white bread, mashed boiled potato, cheese
rinds, etc. In a box of this size, four or five small holes are dug out
with a spoon; the food is dropped in and the earth replaced. This is

80 FISHFOOD

done as often as the food is consumed and in three or four weeks the
harvest of worms will be ready. Care should be taken not to overfeed,
as this will sour the soil. The soil should be removed from the box
about every two weeks, broken up, loosened and returned. This is
considerably facilitated if about half the soil is composed of leaf mold.
The breeding box does best in an average temperature of about 60 degrees
Fahrenheit. Ants, beetles and mice kill these worms, so they should be
excluded.

The worms are separated from the earth in a number of ways. If
but a few are desired the simplest way is to remove two or three spoon-
fuls of soil and place in water just deep enough to cover. In a very short
time the worms will come out of the soil and entangle themselves in a
bunch near the surface of the water, when they may easily be collected.
Another method of separating the worms from soil is to place a
portion of the earth in an enameled dish, pouring on sufficient water to
cover soil, and placing a sheet of glass tightly over dish. Because this
will prevent sufficient oxygen from penetrating the dirt or water, the
enchytrae will promptly leave the soil, crawl up the sides of the dish and
the underside of the glass cover, and cling there. The cover can then
be removed and the worms washed or scraped off and fed to the fish.
This, of course, is a slow process, but by preparing an hour or so before
it is desired to obtain the worms, an ample supply may be procured.

It is not advisable to feed all of the worms thus obtained. When a
considerable number are placed in a tank at a time, some are bound to
escape and, burying themselves in the gravel or sand, die and pollute
the water. A clever method of avoiding this risk is by use of a floating

feeding tube as illustrated. Inserted in a cork float
is a glass thimble in which are several little holes.
A small bunch of worms is placed in the glass. They
gradually make their way through the openings and
into the waiting mouths of the fishes. This little
•p^T 66 device is made commercially, and sells for a trifle.

White Worm Feeder The idea was developed by European aquarists.

Mealworms. These are rather hard, glossy, light brown worms about
an inch long. They are good food for the hard-mouthed fishes, of fair
size, such as the Sunfish and the Cichlids. Lizards thrive on them and
they are about the only obtainable food to carry insectivorous reptiles
and toads over the winter unless they are maintained in a hibernating
condition. Pet stores sell them as bird food. They feed on bran or
other meal in which they are kept. If undisturbed and kept in a liberal
supply of bran they presently turn into small beetles which in turn lay
eggs and hatch into a new and much larger stock of mealworms.

Fig. o7. Daphnia

A photo-micrograph of the little crustacean of supreme importance as food for youns
fishes, especially the goldfish. They are taken greedily by practically all the smaller
fresh-water fishes. Being only the size of a pin-head, it takes a few millions of them
to satisfy the appetite of several large goldfishes.

The ovals shown in the body are eggs, which are carried until hatched. Fishes too
small to eat an adult daphne follow it around waiting for it to drop the young. The
branched arms are for swimming. They are strictly vegetarian, despite former views
on the subject.

The inset shows a characteristic life-size group of daphnia. presented mainly in the
interest of numerous readers who would like to collect the "bugs", but are unable
to identify them from Fig. 55 and our limited word description.

81

Fig. 68. Semi-Professional Breeding Establishment
Many fanciers with sufficient space in their back yards for small breeding houses earn
quite a little money during the year by breeding aquarium fishes.

The large size aquaria and pool indicates this to be a goldfish breeder's establishment

82

CHAPTER FOUR

Diseases and Their Treatment

Even in a state of Nature fishes are sometimes attacked by disease
and parasitic enemies. It is little wonder, then, that aquarium fishes,
weakened by inbreeding and kept under artificial conditions, should be
subject to a number of maladies. The wonder is that the majority of
the diseases can, under the circumstances, be successfully treated.

Half the battle is won by taking the trouble in time. The aquarist
should always be on the alert to detect when his pets are a little out
of condition. This is shown by listless movements, loss of appetite,
drooping dorsal fin (when the fish is in the habit of holding it erect),
congested or frayed fins, white slime on body and bubbles in the excre-
ment. When a fish is even suspected of being in doubtful condition it
should be observed carefully for a day or two, and, if improvement is not
noted, given the required treatment— promptly.

Affected fishes should be immediately removed from their fellows.
There is always the possibility that they are suffering from a contagious
disease which may quickly spread. Great care should be exercised not
to use the same nets in handling sick and well fishes unless they are
sterilized after exposure to disease germs.

Salt Treatment. Most of the disease-producing bacteria of fresh
water are unable to live in moderate salt solutions. The point, then, is
to find the right strength of solution that will kill the bacteria without
injuring the fish. As the salt treatment is the standard one for curable
diseases, we shall go into this at some length.

Kind of Salt. Ordinary table salt is likely to contain chemicals
to prevent caking in damp weather. These are injurious to fishes.
However, if no other salt is obtainable, this can be made to do. The
very best medicine is real sea water, properly diluted. The next best is
rock salt or evaporated sea water. Where the fish shows a tendency
to constipation, one-quarter of the salt content may be Epsom salts.
Some writers recommend this addition in all cases.

84 FISH DISEASES

Strength of Salt Solution. Common practice among the unin-
formed is to throw a sick fish into a strong brine solution, leaving it
there a few minutes until it shows signs of expiring. This treatment is
perhaps better than none at all, but is unnecessarily severe and is not
so successful as the milder solutions. In fact, the strong salt takes the
protective slime off the fish and leaves it in a condition where it is liable
to be quickly re-infected, and in a weakened condition where treatment
is not likely to again be effectual. The usual practice of the author is
to make a solution in which salt is just discernible to the taste. As
the sense of taste varies in individuals, this is not a very accurate rule
to give others. A suitable proportion is one ounce of salt (approximately
two heaping teaspoonfuls) to each gallon of water. If sea water is used,
mix one part to five parts of fresh water. This solution is excellent.

Methods of Treatment. Nearly all sick fishes do best in shallow
water and out of bright light. A shallow enamel tray is very good, or a
well-seasoned tub is suitable. In placing the patient in the medicated
water, see that there is no considerable change in temperature. In warm
weather a change to very slightly cooler water is stimulating and prob-
ably does no harm. In winter, when goldfishes may be run down, the
temperature during treatment should be gradually brought up to about
68 degrees. Except for the air-breathing species (Paradise fish, etc.), a
sudden change to several degrees warmer water is liable to produce
suffocation, warm water holding less free oxygen than cool. Aquarium
fishes can live indefinitely in the solution described, but in two days a
salt solution begins to smell stale and needs to be changed. A daily
change is better. Should the patient not show signs of improvement
in four days, gradually increase the strength of salt solution for two
or three days until it is up to two ounces (four heaping teaspoonfuls)
to each gallon of water. After remaining in this for two days the salt
proportion is slowly weakened down again to the first formula.

Ammonia Treatment. A popular treatment among European fish
culturists for fungoid diseases is the ammonia method. This has not
been generally accepted in the United States, but has been tried with
remarkable success in some instances where other treatments have failed.
We feel, however, that it should only be tried as a last resort. To one
gallon of clean water add ten drops of ordinary household ammonia.
(Unfortunately, this varies somewhat in strength.) Place the fish in this
for five minutes, but take out sooner, should it turn over. Remove to
plain water and then back to its tank.

Special Attention. All fish should, if possible, be placed, after any
chemical treatment, in a healthy tank containing green water. Some-
times this is, indeed, the only treatment required.

FISH DISEASES 85

Another very good after-treatment which may be used in summer
is to place the hospital tank under a small stream or drip. In making
the final change from salt back to fresh water, the drip is a very good
way to accomplish it. Dripping water may do all that is necessary,
especially if a fish is only on the doubtful line, which is more often the
case than not.

Summer offers one more treatment when all others fail— place the
affected fish in a shallow mud-bottom tank or pool. This is especially
beneficial to goldfishes.

When a skilled aquarist finds a fish a little out of condition, but
with apparently nothing radically wrong, his first treatment is to remove
the fish to another tank if he has one available. This often has the
stimulating effect of a change of climate and usually wards off more
serious trouble that might be developing. As with ourselves and all
animals, it is much better to prevent an ailment, if possible, by improved
conditions, rather than by recourse to drugs or chemicals.

The foregoing is general in character but will be found useful in
most of the diseases that can be cured. We will now deal specifically
with the diseases and ailments, first with those of the goldfish.

Fin Congestion. This is the commonest of goldfish troubles, and
is especially liable to attack the highly developed fins of fancy goldfishes.
Their long fins are no doubt deficient in circulation, causing low powers
of resistance. As soon as the fish is slightly indisposed through over-
feeding, sudden chill, protracted low temperature or other causes, fin
congestion is usually the first symptom of trouble. The fins of fancy
goldfishes may be considered very good barometers of the condition of the
fish. The appearance produced by the disease is well indicated by the
name— fin congestion. The fins are more or less red and streaked with
veins. In advanced cases they commence to split and fray, particularly
the tails.

Treatment. Fin congestion, as well as being the commonest of
goldfish diseases, is also the most easily cured. The salt-water treatment
described previously is without a superior. Another method is to dip
the affected parts for half a minute or more in coal oil, keeping the head
and gills wrapped in a moist cloth. Usually lighter feeding and plenty
of room in fresh water will be all that is necessary if taken in time.
Two grains of permanganate of potash to the gallon of water is a suc-
cessful treatment for goldfishes, but is dangerous to tropicals. It is best
to use this in an enamel or a glass receptacle. Organic substances, such
as wood or floating particles of dirt, quickly decompose the chemical.
The fish may be given the permanganate treatment an hour at a time,
but a fresh solution should be made daily.

86 FISH DISEASES

An entirely different kind of fin congestion is sometimes prevalent
in the fall, especially when the fishes are first taken in, the young being
more liable to attack. The base of the tail and other fins becomes
suddenly blood-red, the color sometimes extending to the body immedi-
ately adjoining. If allowed to continue, this form of the disease is
rapidly disastrous. Fortunately, it yields with surprising quickness to
either salt water or permanganate of potash treatment. When alter-
natives to salt-water treatment are suggested, the fancier will certainly
be on the safe side by giving the salt the first trial, particularly if care-
fully followed out as we have directed.

White Fungus. This is next to the most common disease among
goldfishes and is responsible for the majority of deaths, except among

Fig. 69. Fish Affected With White Fungus

This illustration is characteristic of sick fishes in general. The fins are collapsed and
the general appearance is one of listlessness.

very young fry. It begins on the tail and other fins, extending over
the body and into the gills. When it reaches this stage it is usually fatal.
The progress of the disease is marked by the development of a white
scum which destroys the fins, prevents the natural functions of the skin,
and when the parasite enters the gills causes death by suffocation. The
latter stage is not always reached, the fish often becoming so emaciated
as to die in the second stage of the malady. The fungus causing this
disease is present in virtually all water, but can usually make no inroads
on a fish in good condition. A weakened fish once infected will breed
so many bacteria that they can successfully attack the remaining well
fish. White fungus, therefore, is contagious, and the sufferer should be
removed from the others at once. This disease is caused by overcrowding,
overfeeding, lack of proper plant life, sudden temperature changes and
by bruises in shipment.

FISH DISEASES 87

Treatment. Fishes suffering from white fungus should be treated
exactly the same as those having fin congestion. If the fins have become
very much frayed and it is necessary to trim them, this can best be done
by a sharp knife, using a board to cut on. Scissors make a very poor
result. It is well to treat the new cut edges with a permanganate solu-
tion of one grain to a glass of water. By grain we of course always
mean a certain quantity of weight, and not simply a small particle.

Sometimes raw spots are left after the fungus has been removed.
These or similar spots from other causes can be greatly helped by the
following method: Wrap the head and gills of the fish in a moist rag,
dry the affected spot and, with a small piece of cotton, apply some
Turlington's Balsam. Allow to dry for three or four minutes. This will
not endanger the life of the fish so long as the gills are kept moist.

Itch. One of the common complaints in temperate and tropical
aquaria. The fishes are observed to quickly rub their sides against the
firmer objects in the aquarium, often against sand or pebbles on the
bottom. This is different from Ichthyophthirius.

Treatment. Although this trouble is caused by different organisms,
they nearly all yield to the progressive salt treatment. The aquarium
should be cleaned out before fish are returned, and care exercised to
keep it in a cleaner condition, paying particular attention to seeing that
no uneaten particles of food are left lying about. The introduction of
more snails in goldfish aquaria will help to avoid a recurrence.

Constipation. Among the highly-bred, short bodied fishes, constipa-
tion, as well as other mechanical internal disorders, are naturally common.
The much shortened bodies throw the internal organs out of position,
give rise to swimming bladder troubles and tie up the muscles which
must discharge eggs and also the excrement of the fishes. Lack of proper
exercise in the cramped confines of the aquarium and too highly con-
centrated foods are other causes leading to constipation. The excrement
should be of a brown color and free from bubbles or any slimy appear-
ance. In health it usually is seen in long sections.

Treatment. A bath half each of sea salt and Epsom salts, made
to a strength of one ounce of salts to the gallon, will usually prove
beneficial. It is better not to feed the fish during the period of treatment
— about two days. The trouble may be due to overfeeding, and in any
case a short fast will probably do good.

Goldfishes readily eat Epsom salts. A pinch dropped in the aquarium
once weekly is beneficial, and at the same time replaces some of the
mineral content of the water depleted by the plants and fishes drawing

88 FISH DISEASES

constantly upon it for the chemicals necessary to sustain life. This prac-
tice has a tendency to prevent constipation.

Chopped earthworms will be found a mild laxative. In severe cases
some fanciers place a drop of castor oil well down the throat of the fish
by means of a dropper. The author has never been convinced that the
fish swallows any medicine administered in this way, but results are
claimed for the method. A physician friend hypodermically injects
castor oil into small earthworms before feeding them to the fish, thus
insuring the swallowing of the dose— a sort of living capsule ! Scrambled
egg, salted with Epsom salts, undoubtedly is a splendid laxative. Chopped,
crisp, lettuce leaves are also beneficial.

Tail-rot. This disease first affects the end of the tail and other fins ;
the appearance is one of being frayed and split. If allowed to continue
until the base of the tail is affected, the fish will die. Taken in time the
trouble is easily corrected. It must not be supposed that every case of
split and ragged tails is one of tail-rot. This is often a manifestation
of a generally run-down condition, and in addition to the regular treat-
ment for tail-rot, also requires a general building-up under improved
environment.

Treatment. The same treatment as that for white fungus is indi-
cated. Dipping the tail in a 10% solution of peroxide of hydrogen is
beneficial. Should the ends be hopelessly frayed, they may be eaten
off by a 50% peroxide solution. On returning to the water the treated
parts will be full of bubbles and will slough off in a few days, leaving
a less sharp line than when cut with a knife.

Consumption. This is a real form of tuberculosis, but caused by a
bacillus different from that in warm-blooded animals. The body becomes
wasted and thin, and so shrunken that the head appears to stand out
from the body. Listlessness and loss of appetite are accompanying
symptoms.

Treatment. This trouble seems to be deeply seated and is difficult
to treat successfully. Unless the fish is a particularly valued one, it
had best be destroyed. Place fish in an ample supply of green water
or water containing y 2 ounce of sea salt to the gallon. Feed well on
daphnia, chopped earthworms and soft bits of oyster. Placing fish
in a shallow muddy pond or tank may be beneficial.

For fishes that are slightly run down, a reliable correspondent, who
seems to be no joker, informs the author that diluted whisky dropped
in the throat of goldfishes effects a wonderful cure. He dilutes the whisky
with five times the volume of water and drops four drops in the throat of
the fish twice daily.

Dropsy. The cause for this distressing complaint is not known, but

FISH DISEASES 89

it is considered to be due to a disordered liver. It is more apt to attack
fancy goldfishes and tropicals, the Dwarf Gouramis being particularly sus-
ceptible. The manifestations are a swelling of the body and the scales
standing out at an angle. This can best be seen from a top view.
Strangely enough, the victims do not seem to feel depressed until within
a few days of death. See text accompanying Figure 227.

Treatment. No cure is known for dropsy in fishes. They have
been known to improve under absolute starvation lasting several weeks,
but a recurrence is likely to take place. There is a current belief that
a few drops of digitalis in the water sometimes effects a cure. The author
has never been able to verify a single such case.

Swimming Bladder Trouble. Highly bred, short-bodied fishes are
the more susceptible to this not uncommon disorder. Sometimes the
victims are unable to rise from the bottom except by a violent effort, or
again they may lie at the top of water at an angle, or even upside down.
Scaleless varieties are the more susceptible, particularly the light colors.
Reduced temperatures, even when brought about slowly, are responsible
for most cases. In normal condition this bladder balances the fish.

Treatment. No sure cure for swimming bladder trouble is known,
but it is sometimes relieved by placing the fish in very shallow, slightly
salt warm water. If the patient is benefited it will always have to be
kept in temperate water, preferably shallow.

It should be borne in mind that not all cases of loss of equilibrium
are due to bladder trouble, but may be caused by accumulated gases
resulting from indigestion. Treatment for constipation will relieve these
cases, but such fishes will have to always be watched carefully thereafter.
The author has had some remarkably good results in these cases by feed-
ing earthworms.

Gill Congestion. There are two forms of gill congestion. The most
important, generally known as "gill fever," is that attacking fry from two
to five weeks old, and is easily responsible for more losses among gold-
fishes than all other causes combined. The gills become inflamed and
swollen, presenting a distended appearance. Owing to the minuteness
of the fish at this period a further observation is difficult except with a
magnifying glass, which shows white threads like bristles sticking from
the gill plates and openings. The disease is highly contagious, so that if
one affected fish is found in a thousand, it is very difficult to save any
of them, even though the sick fish be removed at once.

The other form affects mainly young fishes about 2 inches long. The
gills swell rapidly, the infection spreading to the throat and producing
a gray or whitish appearance. Without treatment, death is sure to come

90 FISH DISEASES

quickly. This was formerly a common disease among fancy fishes, but
for some unknown reason has largely subsided; we hope permanently.

Treatment of Fry. Innumerable experiments have been tried to
cure this devastating disease, but without consistent results. So fatal
is it considered by many expert fanciers that when they find a few
affected fishes they destroy them, together with perhaps thousands of their
fellows in the same tank without attempting a cure, throwing out bad
and apparently good alike. The tank is then disinfected with strong salt
water or more powerful germicides. The great trouble is that any
chemical which will kill the parasites is also very apt to kill the delicate
fry. However, it is almost certain a cure can be found, and it is a great
pity to neglect an opportunity for experimenting. Cases have been cured,
but exact data are lacking. The most encouraging thing that can be said
in this connection is that the disease can almost always be avoided by
not overcrowding the fry. Allow at least three square inches of water
surface per fish up to six weeks old, and more thereafter.

Treatment of Larger Fishes. This form of gill congestion has
also been considered necessarily fatal, but such is not the case. The fish
should be placed in strong salt water (3^2 ounces to the gallon) until
it rolls over from exhaustion. It is then transferred to a tank of gently
running water which overflows. It appears as though the salt loosens
the disease-germs and the running water carries them off while they
are weakened. Treatment is repeated daily until improvement is noticed.

Eye Inflammation. The protruding eyes of Telescope fishes are quite
subject to injury, especially against the sides of cans in travel. Pains-
taking treatment can go far to relieve this condition and ward off perma-
nent blindness.

Treatment. Make a saturated solution of boracic acid in tepid
water. This is gently applied daily to the affected parts by a bit of
absorbent cotton. The fish should be placed, if possible, in a large tank
free from obstructions, that the injured eyes may not be further irritated.

Instead of boracic acid, the eye may be swabbed with a mixture
composed of one part of tincture of iodine with nine parts of glycerine.
One treatment is usually enough. It takes about two weeks to clear up.
This mixture is a most efficient home remedy for applying to cuts or
other open wounds, giving all the benefits of iodine without its burning
qualities.

ANIMAL PARASITES

There are only five of these of sufficient importance to keepers of
aquarium fishes to require mention. Food fishes and all wild species
are more or less subject to numerous parasites, many of them serious or
fatal. No doubt aquarium conditions are not favorable to their propaga-

FISH DISEASES 91

tion ; otherwise we would have more trouble in this direction on account
of the large numbers of wild fishes from so many parts of the world being
imported for aquarium purposes.

Leeches. There is a small white leech about T /\ inch long occa
sionally introduced with living food (daphnia), more particularly in the
spring. This attacks the bodies and gills, and if the fish is only a few
weeks old the results are fatal. In an aquarium it is easily possible to
see them on the glass and the breeder should be on the 'lookout for them.
If any are discovered the fishes should be carefully removed to an
aquarium where they can be kept under observation. The aquarium
should be disinfected by ammonia (page 102). These and larger leeches
can be removed from the gills of larger fishes by the injection of strong
salt water, or by the progressive salt water treatment previously described.

Fish Lice. While not very common, and seldom if ever fatal, this
crustacean parasite is very annoying. It is about }i inch in diameter,
very flat, of a nearly rounded outline and is quite translucent, but dis-
tinctly showing handsome iridescent colors under a good magnifying glass.

Fig. 70. Fish Louse. Argulus (Enlarged four diameters)

They are free swimmers and are able to hold most tenaciously to their
hosts. So tight is their hold that even after death by poisoning they
still adhere where fastened. Owing to their translucent quality they are
difficult to see. The fishes will scratch themselves much the same as in
cases of the "Itch," but one can notice small irritated spots, particularly
on the fins. The body, however, is not free from attack. The lice adhere
tightly, but can be scraped off with the point of a knife.

Treatment consists in the use of permanganate of potash, the strength
varying according to conditions. If there is much organic matter present,
such as leaves, settlings and green water, the strength may be made as
high as J / 2 grain by weight to the gallon of water, especially in a wooden
tank. If the container is very clean and there is nothing in it except the
fishes, }i grain per gallon is enough. In general, T /\ grain per gallon is
safe. Unless the fishes show signs of dying, the water does not need to
be changed, as most of the chemical expends its strength within an hour
and clears in a few days.

As the treatment does not affect the eggs of the parasites, a second
application should be given in a week, especially in ponds or pools.

Flukes. The detection of flukes is not easy without the aid of a
microscope, the cause being a small parasite worm (Gyrodactylus elegans),
chiefly infesting the gills. The fish breathes unnaturally fast, frequently

92 FISH DISEASES

coming to the surface of the water for air. The fins twitch and occa-
sionally the fish will dash wildly and aimlessly about the tank, coming to
a rest after exhaustion. Before death the body becomes thin and
emaciated.

If the fish is not too far gone it will stand the formaldehyde treatment,
which will usually effect a cure. Place the fish in a solution of 5 drops
of formaldehyde to the quart of water. Add one drop per minute (per
quart) until there are ten drops to each quart. Allow the fish to remain
in this for ten minutes unless it sooner shows signs of exhaustion. Return
to a thoroughly disinfected tank and repeat the operation next day. Two
or three treatments will usually be sufficient. As a rule, all the fishes in
a tank are affected, so if this parasite is positively identified, it will be
well to treat every fish that has been exposed.

Most animal parasites can be destroyed by adding 1 part of glacial
acetic acid to 490 parts of water. Treatment lasts twenty seconds.

Ichthyophthirius. If a dangerous disease may be called interesting,
ichthyophthirius would be entitled to that distinction. Of recent years
it has been the centre of attention among aquarists and writers in
aquarium periodicals. It has no doubt killed more prized tropical
aquarium fishes than all other diseases combined. Numerous goldfishes
have also succumbed.

The disease is caused by an animal parasite, spending one stage of
its development in or on the fins and bodies of fishes. Its presence is
made known by the appearance of tiny white spots, which eventually
become so thick as to produce a whitish appearance. One illiterate fancier
rather aptly called it "pepper and salt fungus" because the fish appeared
as though seasoned with salt. The spots are considerably smaller than
pin heads, yet not difficult to see.

Formerly this parasite was always found to be fatal, but since we
understand its life history or cycle, it can usually be destroyed. The
tiny organisms which have embedded themselves in the flesh and fins
of their victims soon drop eggs to the bottom of the aquarium. The
parent parasite soon dies, the eggs hatch, become free-swimming, burrow
into a fish and start the cycle over again in hugely increased numbers.

Mercurochrome, of the usual strength as purchased in drug stores,
used at a ratio of 4 drops to the gallon of water, is one of the surest
remedies. Plants and fishes need not be removed from the treated tank.
The temperature during treatment should be kept at about 85 degrees,
regardless of what medication is used. The treatment usually produces
improvement within 2 days, and a cure within a week. After the cure,
most of the water should be siphoned off, care being taken to remove all
sediment. If the fishes are large enough to handle in a net, the mercuro-

FISH DISEASES 93

chrome may be applied, full strength, to the body and fins, using a little
absorbent cotton, held in tweezers. Some aquarists successfully use salt
instead of Mercurochrome, 2 teaspoonsful to the gallon, in conjunction
with the heat of 85 degrees.

The disease principally affects tropicals.

Tropical fishes are the principal victims, and attacks are usually
caused by the water becoming chilled, or by the use of unseasoned water,
or by sudden temperature changes, either up or down, but mainly down.

Goldfishes yield to the same treatment, or may be given the per-
manganate of potash treatment as described under "Fin Congestion" a
few pages back. Then again they have simply been wiped off goldfishes
with a piece of cheesecloth dipped in kerosene, placing the fish in new
water and a new receptacle after treatment. A repetition on the second
day is usually necessary.

Thread Parasite. Although the Lernean parasites of many species
have long been known to science, and are indeed quite common both
to fresh and salt water fishes, it was not until 1931 that this pest made
itself apparent to fish farmers. The first manifestation is a pimple,
commonly near the tail. From this develops a tough thread-like growth
about half an inch long, usually with a slight branching at the end. It
is anchored deeply in the flesh of the fish with a small spreading foot,
and when removed by a steady pull, leaves a sore which heals itself,
but which had best be touched with a bit of mercurochrome. If not
removed the parasite will presently die and drop off, but the numbers
very greatly increase if nothing is done about it, so that they attach
themselves to all parts of the body, even into the mouth, when the
results may be fatal. The outer end of the thread contains an egg sac.
The young become free-swimming and burrow into the flesh of the fish,
which starts the described pimple. Treatment consists in picking off
all the threads, removing the fish to another receptacle and treating their
tank with a tablespoonful ,of chlorinated lime to each gallon of water.
This will kill practically all life in an hour. Flush tank and refill. If
convenient, the fish should not be returned to their tank for two days,
to see whether embryo parasites already in the fish develop. Where the
foregoing treatment is impracticable, it is advisable to try the perman-
genate method as recommended for Fish Lice.

Diseases of Tropical Fishes. Tropicals usually cannot so well stand
the different chemicals and treatments recommended for goldfish. The
principal cause for their lack of condition is too low a temperature. If
placed in a uniform warmer temperature, with one ounce of sea salt to
each gallon of water, and fed up on daphnia, small chopped earthworms,
or white worms, they will usually improve rapidly.

94 FISH DISEASES

The most common disease among them is ichthyophthirius, already
described. This epidemic kills more tropical fishes than any other
cause.

As stated in the Chapter on Heating a good plan is to suspend the
glass portion of an electric bulb in water. It is again mentioned here be-
cause it is a splendid emergency method of raising the temperature in any
particular aquarium. The greatest heat is obtained from the old style
carbon filament, particularly from an old bulb. While this gives less light,
it generates more heat.

Wounds, Ulcers, Etc. All fishes are liable to injuries, but in this
paragraph we have particularly in mind that not infrequently some
savage tropical fish " beats up" another. If the victim is not too far
gone, there is a slim chance of saving it. Swab the injured parts with
coal oil and return the fish to slightly salted water which has been boiled
and cooled. Daily treatment may be necessary. Usually within three
days the fish will either die or pass the danger point. When the injury
is confined to a small location the spot may be touched with 2% mer-
curochrome (usual commercial strength). Turlington's Balsam has been
used with success on injuries, especially on marine fishes in public
aquaria, where wounds are apt to be of a serious nature.

Scales knocked off will in time be replaced if the fish passes the
first week without developing fungus.

Sometimes fishes, particularly Pterophyllum scalare, are occasionally
attacked by some affection which eats a hole into the flesh. Perhaps it
is an ulcer. At any rate, without treatment it terminates fatally. This
may be healed by swabbing into the opening with an equal mixture of
tincture of iodine and tincture of aconite, applied by a little absorbent
cotton rolled on the end of a toothpick. A few treatments suffice.

In General. There are times when a fish gradually sinks into an
emaciated condition without apparent cause and without serious loss
of appetite. The belly becomes hollow and the back arched. This is
more apt to be the case with tropical fishes, particularly with females of
the livebearing group that have bred freely. It seems to be the natural
end of life and there is nothing much to do about it. Many of the
tropicals mature quickly, breed rapidly and continuously. It can only
be expected that their natural span of life will be short. "Guppys," for
instance, are old in three years.

Many correspondents inquire whether their fishes have died of
strangulation, on account of the fact that they were found with their
mouths wide open and gills distended. Dissection rarely shows anything
in the throat. In common with most animals their very last instinct is
to relax their jaws, which probably causes them to die in the condition
described.

FISH DISEASES 95

Last Resorts. Occasionally someone tells us that they have con-
scientiously followed every direction in our book and yet their fishes
seem droopy and listless, or perhaps they are dying. Unusual microscopic
and chemical conditions arise in water at different locations which are
difficult to analyze, especially from a distance. Usually they are only
temporary.

A good plan in such cases is to give the fishes a complete change into
other water which has been boiled, cooled and aerated. This eliminates
bacteria or chlorine. As elsewhere stated, it is also a good idea to take
water directly from a stream or pond known to contain fishes. A change
of diet to chopped earthworms is a further help, or, if they are not avail-
able, to one of the animal foods mentioned in the chapter on "Fishfoods."
Finally one should take another sharp look for ichthyophthirius or other
disease, and also check up on the air-surface-per-fish rule, if goldfish are
being considered.

No air-surface rule has been worked out for tropicals because of
their infinite variety, and while most of them can stand close quarters,
they surely would enjoy getting into an aquarium where they can stretch
their legs!

Acid-Alkali Tests. Modern research has definitely established
the fact that many forms of life are vitally affected by acid or alkaline
environment, the two being of opposite qualities, like positive and nega-
tive electricity. Vegetation and lower aquatic animal life are often
keenly susceptible to these conditions, particularly in the matter of re-
producing themselves. It is, therefore, our interesting problem to find
the condition which will be unfavorable to fish enemies without harming
the fishes. Simple and inexpensive testing sets are now available to
aquarists, and in use by many of them, not only for the control of
disease, but also in establishing favorable breeding conditions for the
different species. Much has yet to be learned in this field, but it appears
to be well worth delving into.

On the scale accompanying these sets (called pH or hydrogen ion
sets) the neutral point is at 7. All above is alkaline, and below is acid.
The accepted safe range for aquarium fishes is between 6.4 and 7.4.
Water kept at about 6.8 is suited to most aquarium fishes and is un-
favorable to many bacterial and parasitic enemies and to micro vegetal
organisms which cloud the water or turn it green.

Under control of a test set there are several acids which are safe
to use. Among them are hydrochloric, acetic and acid sodium phos-
phate, the latter being preferable, as well as more permanent in its
effect. The simplest agents for turning water to the alkaline side are
bicarbonate of soda (washing soda) or lime water.

CHAPTER FIVE

Fish Enemies

m>

&\*

Among the troubles that beset the fish culturist, not the least are
caused by insects and their larvae. This applies both to the propagator
of food-fishes and those interested in fancy aquarium pets. We use the
term "insect" here in its popular sense and not according to exact scien-
tific definition.

Some of these enemies are much more readily detected than others,
but most of them may enter the rearing tanks when so small that detec-
tion is practically impossible. Wire screen or netting will keep out
those that fly, or a large enemy in the water can be separated from
daphnia or other living food by passing the "catch" through a fine wire
gauze under water, but despite these precautions it is essential in the
summer season to be ever on the lookout for any of the pests which
may have gotten by our keenest observation. Fortunately for the aquarist,
there are not many kinds of insect enemies with which he is actively
concerned. There are only three, all of them being larvae. While the
others are none the less savage or fatal, they are not so often met with,
or else are so easily detected that they are not such serious factors with
which to reckon.

Water Tiger. This is the larva of the Predaceous Diving Beetle
(Dytiscus), itself also a very powerful but easily detected enemy. The
Water Tiger is easily the most rapacious, savage and insatiable enemy

Fig. 71. Water Tiger (Life size)

of young fishes. It does not idly wait for its prey to pass nearby, but
adopts business-like methods of going after its unwary victims. The
flat head is furnished with a strong pair of hollow mandibles, through

FISH ENEMIES

97

which it sucks enough blood to kill its victim and then wantonly goes
after another. In this way a single individual may kill an entire
hatching of fish over night. This larva can usually be recognized by its
spindle-shaped body ; flat, strong head ; pale translucent brown color and
a steady progress through the water, coming to the surface frequently to
breathe a moment through the rear end. Although growing to a length
of 2Y2. inches, at which time it attacks larger fishes and any small aquatic
animals, it is the smaller sizes with which we are principally concerned.
From a length of l /\ to 1 inch they are not so easily seen, but are capable
of doing great mischief.

Spearmouth. While not quite so common as the Water Tiger, its
habits are similar and it grows to an even larger size, reaching 3 inches.

Fig. 72. Spearmouth (Life Size)

The body is thicker and the mandibles are shorter. From the aquarist's
standpoint both these larvae could be classed as one. The Spearmouth
is the larva of the large Water Scavenger Beetle (Hydrophilus).

Dragon-Fly Larvae. Almost everyone who raises fish outdoors is
familiar with these unpleasant individuals. There are two reasons why
they are difficult to altogether avoid. When newly hatched they are
very small and will go through the same strainer as daphnia ; furthermore,
the mother Dragon Fly (Odonata) is an excellent flier and may deposit
her eggs in any body of water that provides proper facilities for her
needs. These larvae live more by their cunning than by any agility as

Fig. 73.
Nymph of Dragon Fly

Fig. 74.
Dragon Fly Larva Catching Young Fish (Life size)

swimmers. Waiting on a dirty pond-bottom or attached to sticks, aquatic
grass or other object, they mark time until a victim comes within close
reach. Then they quickly pounce forward, extending a vicious, pincher-like
organ called the "mask," rarely missing the object of attack. The method

98 FISH ENEMIES

of propulsion through the water is peculiar, being brought about by a
series of expulsions of water from the rear end. This enables them to
make a very sudden leap towards a victim. The "mask," shown in
Figure 74, when not in use is folded before and under the head. Dragon
Fly larvae are strictly carnivorous at all periods and will attack any
pond creature reasonably near their own size. If given enough time a
single individual will destroy an entire hatching of fishes, growing by what
it feeds upon so as to be able to devour the remaining fishes which are
also becoming larger.

Predaceous Diving Beetle (Dytiscus). Fortunately this beetle is
of such size that it can scarcely escape notice, especially as it is obliged

Fig. 75. Predaceous Diving Beetle (Life size)

to come to the surface for air, which it takes at the end of the abdomen.
It is rapacious in extreme degree and is a good swimmer. A large
specimen was once placed in an aquarium for observation. It so quickly
attacked a goldfish that the scales fell in a small shower and the fish
died before it could be rescued. They are usually of such a dark brown as
to appear black, but are sometimes bordered with yellow.

Water Scavenger Beetle (Hydrophilidce). We mention this beetle
here because of its resemblance to the large predaceous diving beetle.

Fig. 76. Water Scavenger Beetle (Life size)

It swims differently, using its legs alternately, while the diving beetle
moves opposite pairs together. The Scavenger Beetle is also different
in that it breathes at the surface from the mouth. Instead of long
antennas, they have palpi looking like club-shaped antennae. This beetle
lives chiefly on decomposing vegetal and animal matter, although taking
soft living plants such as Nitella. It has been claimed to be predaceous,

FISH ENEMIES

99

but there is doubt about their attacking fishes. They have been kept in
aquaria with them without doing damage. On general principles, how-
ever, it is best to exclude all beetles, large or small.

Water Strider (Hydrobatidoe). Another of the predaceous aquatic
insects is the Water Strider. Quite as well known as the Whirligig

Fig. 77. Water Strider (Life size)

Beetle, it adopts somewhat the same methods of securing its prey,
darting over the surface of the water, waiting for the stream to bring
down some helpless insect victim that has fallen overboard. They are
capable of catching young fishes which come to the surface.

Giant Water Bug (Belostomatidce), also known as the Electric
Light Bug, is one of our common bugs, both on land and in water.
Flying clumsily but strongly before electric lights, or patiently awaiting
a victim at the bottom of a pond, the bug is one and the same. They
are fiercely predaceous and very powerful. While this is a vicious enemy,
it is not one that frequently* gets into the fish tank except by flight,
and as only the adults fly they are easily detected by their size. In
large outdoor rearing pools or lakes they are a very practical menace.

Figs. 78 and 79. Giant Water Bugs (B. serphus and B. americana). The smaller a

Male With Eggs on Back (Life size)

The colors range from clear, dark reddish brown to dull olive. With
some of the smaller genera, Serphus and Zaitha it was supposed that
females lay the eggs on their own backs. Some writers have accepted
this popular misconception without investigation. It has been fully
established that the female fastens her eggs on the back of an unwilling
male, who only submits to the indignity after a struggle.

100

FISH ENEMIES

Water Scorpion (Neptidce). We have here another of the insects
spending most of its time in aquatic dirt and rubbish awaiting innocent

Fig. 80. Water Scorpion (Life size)

passersby who, for their unwariness, will pay with their lives. While
this insect is common enough to the naturalist, it is not one with which
the fish-culturist need be seriously concerned.

Whirligig Beetle (Gyrinidoe). This well-known beetle is common
to many slow-flowing streams and pools, keeping up a perpetual move-
ment on the surface of the water, on which it glides apparently without
effort. On account of its size and shape it is often called the coffee
bug. The breeder of fishes is not harassed by this insect, but occasionally
an aquarist will be tempted to introduce one in a fish-tank. This is a
mistake. They are predaceous and can inflict a severe bite. The larva,

Figs. 81 and 82. Whirligig Beetle and Larva (Enlarged three times)

which is not so well known, is also predaceous. This little beetle when
held in the hand emits a faint but pleasant odor.

Fig. 83. Water Boatman (Slightly enlarged)

Water Boatmen and Back Swimmers (Corixidx and Notonectida)
are found everywhere in still or slow-moving water. There is a wide
variation of opinion as to the predaceous characteristics of these insects.
This is because fish breeders ordinarily class them all as "boatmen," a
very natural mistake owing to their general resemblance. The facts are
that Back Swimmers (fortunately much the fewer in numbers) are carniv-
orous, predaceous and capable of inflicting a severe bite when being
handled. They are fish enemies. Water Boatmen are harmless scav-
engers. In swimming they use their longest pair of legs like oars, which
accounts for their name.

FISH ENEMIES

101

Back Swimmers may be recognized by the fact that the back is down
and the legs up while swimming, and also that they breathe at the surface
through the end of the body. As a matter of practice it is easier to re-
move all such insects rather than try to determine the species. Scalares
and other large hard-mouthed fishes like to eat water boatmen.

Mites (Hydrachna). These odd-looking little balls of intense ver-
milion are sometimes placed in small tropical aquaria with fishes. This

Fig. 84. Water Mite (Enlarged about jour times)

is inadvisable, as they are parasitic. It is doubtful whether they actually
kill their host. They are common in the still water of lily ponds.

Hydra. Although Hydra is not an insect, we include it here as
an important enemy of young fishes. Hydra is a polyp which attaches
itself to plants, stones or the sides of the aquarium. Being thread-like
in appearance, it is apt to be overlooked, especially by the inexperienced.
It is usually introduced with living food caught from pools. The spores
are so small as to be unrecognizable, and therefore they cannot be
avoided. The animal itself has a cylindrical body with from 5 to 12
tentacles surrounding a mouth. The shape varies so amazingly that an
accurate description is difficult. The two figures shown are of the same
individual. When alarmed the tentacles are entirely withdrawn, making
recognition still more difficult. The figure at the left is the usual form
when not alarmed. In this condition it reaches from % to % inch in
length, but the body may be considerably thinner if food is scarce.

Fig. 85. Hydra (Greatly enlarged)

Propagation is by budding, by spores and by division. If one of
the tentacles be cut off it will develop into a perfect hydra.

102 FISH ENEMIES

They rapidly deplete an aquarium of daphnia and newly hatched
fishes. When a school of fry under 5-16 inch long is disappearing without
apparent cause, it will be well to take a sharp look for hydra.

Hydra possess a poison which quickly stupefies their prey, and to
fish large enough to eat the hydra this poison doubtless has an unpleasant
taste. There is no fish known which will eat them. To get rid of this
pest, remove all fish, snails, etc., from the tank and place in it one tea-
spoonful of household ammonia to five gallons of aquarium water.
Allow this to stand for two hours, change water and replace fish. This
treatment will not kill plants. Raising the aquarium temperature to
110 degrees F. for a few minutes will also destroy hydra.

LARGER ENEMIES OF FISHES

It should not be understood that the foregoing are the only serious
enemies of pet fishes. In the greenhouse, outdoor pool, or even the
library, misfortune is liable to descend in various guises. Chief among
these are the cat, rat, muskrat, snake, heron, kingfisher and small boy.
Fishes are also taken by the sandpiper, horned owl, blackbird and
crayfish. The blackbird specializes on picking out the eyes of telescopes,
if the water is near enough to the edge of tank for him to reach them.
Frogs will eat fishes of nearly their own size. Slow-moving fancy gold-
fishes are easy prey for them and inexperienced fanciers have lost many
of their best specimens through ignorance of this menace. Rats are
extremely daring and resourceful in finding ways to get at goldfish tanks,
especially in greenhouses, where they cause great losses to fish stock.
They will even burrow from the outside and gnaw their way through a
weak portion of cement flooring.

Kingfishers can be destroyed by setting a steel trap on the high look-
out point where they watch for their victims. The trap is not baited.
It is set off by the bird alighting on the trigger. Aside from this suggestion
the owner of the fish will have to use his personal ingenuity to combat
these enemies as occasion arises. The author must here content himself
with pointing out the possible sources of trouble.

It very rarely happens that a large goldfish is an offender in a peculiar
and surprising way. This is in the gentle and shocking art of sucking
the telescopic eyes out of other goldfishes. If the owner of telescopes
finds one of his pets with an empty eye socket he should do a little de-
tective work to find the culprit among the other fishes and place it where
no further damage can be done. The loss of an eye in this way never
seems to seriously inconvenience the victim.

CHAPTER SIX

6&j^t^Qi£ <

6$

^ Construction of Aquaria, Tanks, Etc. §*§*

AQUARIUM CONSTRUCTION

The amateur aquarist with a little talent for things mechanical
can find profit as well as pleasure in making an aquarium according to
his own ideas and requirements. The few necessary tools either are, or
ought to be, a part of every household equipment.

Naturally the first consideration is that of the space to be occupied
by the aquarium. In determining this it is well to be influenced, as
far as conditions will permit, by the needs of the aquarium inmates,
not forgetting that most aquarium fishes do best in shallow aquaria
with plenty of water surface. However, for artistic arrangement and
symmetrical plant growth we must have a certain amount of depth.
Twenty inches deep is sufficient even for large aquaria. For all-round
purposes, bearing in mind both the artistic and the practical, a good
general rule is to make the aquarium in the form of a double cube. That
is, the width and height identical, and the length twice that of either.
Unless an aquarium is to be viewed only from the top, it is not advisable
to make the width over twenty-five inches, as even a slight cloudiness of
the water considerably obscures the fishes when there is so much of it to
look through. Within reason, make the aquarium as large as possible,
but nothing over a seventy-gallon size is to be recommended for the
household. An accidental breaking of the glass, even at this size, is too
great a catastrophe to contemplate with composure. Since it is very
little more trouble to keep a large-sized aquarium than a small one, and
the results are so much better, at least with goldfishes, we would unhesi-
tatingly say to those weighing the merits of two sizes, take the larger.

For most varieties of tropical fishes, a number of small aquaria
will be found preferable. These will be treated hereafter in the present
chapter.

We will now take up in order the points of construction, remember-
ing always, the factor of safety.

104 CONSTRUCTION

Bases. The best material for general use in aquarium bases is slate.
It is inexpensive, durable, easily worked, free from cleavage cracks, and
in every way reliable. The requirements for thickness are from ^-inch
for sizes up to 30 gallons, to 1% inches for 130 gallons. Polished Ten-
nessee marble makes a handsome and durable base. White marble is too
glaring and besides is easily chipped in moving an aquarium about.
Also when brought into contact with aquarium cement it absorbs and
spreads the oil, making a bad appearance.

Aquarium bases usually extend from one to one and one-half inches
beyond the frames on all sides. Slate or marble bases ought to be
beveled sufficiently on the upper edges and corners to take away the
sharpness. The necessary holes through which the frame is to be bolted
can be drilled with an ordinary metal drill, but it costs very little extra
to have the slate-worker do this when he is finishing the base. The under
side of the hole should be countersunk with a larger drill to allow for
bolt nuts. Aquaria up to 10 gallons require 4 bolts, 20 gallons 6, and
for the larger sizes they should be placed about 10 inches apart.

Frame Metals. Angle brass, iron or aluminum form the best metal
aquarium frames. For the amateur worker, brass offers the most advan-
tages. It is easily sawed, drilled and soldered, besides making a hand-
some appearance when polished and chromium or nickel-plated. II
nickeled it should be heavily plated. Angle iron is not so attractive in
appearance, but is undoubtedly more rigid. It cannot so well be soldered
Consequently the four corners of the upper and lower frames have to
be riveted through connecting elbow pieces on the inside or special castings
on the outside, and then the whole riveted to the uprights. Aluminum
has seldom been used, but makes an attractive frame. As the soldering
of this metal is of doubtful durability, it is safer to rivet the same as
with iron.

For aquaria'up to 25 gallons ^-inch angle metal is suitable; up to
50 gallons, %-inch; up to 75 gallons, 1-inch; up to 125-gallons, 1^-inch.
The author prefers seeing as little of the frame as possible and for many
years has successfully used a 60-gallon aquarium constructed with only
^-inch angle brass, but he would not care to make this as a general
recommendation. It is mentioned so that if others have the same idea
they will know that it is a mechanical possibility.

Unless constructed of heavy angle iron, it is best to carry a light
rod across short dimension of the centre of top frame of aquaria over
30 inches in length, to prevent bulging by water pressure.

Frame Construction. A hack-saw with fine teeth for metal working
will be needed to cut the proper lengths of angle metal. After carefully
determining proportions desired, cut the four uprights and then the

CONSTRUCTION

105

material for top and bottom frames. If working in brass, the upper and
lower frames should each be left in one piece. By accurately bevelino
the two ends and preparing right-angle cuts at three points, as shown in

Fig. 86. Cut, Preparatory to Bending Angle Brass

above figure, the whole can be bent into a frame that will produce very
neat corners and make soldering easy. The right-angle cuts should be
finished with a square file and carried within about 1-32-inch of going
through. This leaves the bar very weak at these points and considerable
care is necessary in handling in order that some accident does not break
them apart before it is time to bend. If one breaks it is not a very
serious matter, only the corner will not have quite such a neat appearance.
In practice we find it best to bend each cut as soon as finished and roughly
fasten with solder. When all three bends have been completed, place
within it a wooden form, as shown below. Except for the corners being

Fig. 87. Frame Secured on Wooden Form
Note Reinforcement in Upper Right Corner

cut off (to allow for soldering), the edges of form should be perfectly
rectangular and fit closely. Now secure quite firmly with stout twine.
After all corners are trued up with the board, apply the permanent solder.
Melt solder from any corner that does not stand true without forcing, and
re-solder. In the upper-right corner of illustration will be noted a right-
angle flange reinforcement, cut from a flat piece of 1-16 inch brass. It is
advisable to use these. They add greatly to the strength and actually

106 CONSTRUCTION

make the work of soldering easier. After preparing the surfaces with
solder-flux it is only necessary to place solder on the frame, lay the flange
on top of it and apply torch beneath. When solder melts, press flange
down and into exact position with a small stick of wood. It is better to
have flange sufficiently narrow to allow the uprights to fit in back of them.

The same form can be used for upper and lower frames. Should
there be any irregularity in shape, they will both be alike, and so far
as strength is concerned, it will only be necessary to keep corresponding
defective corners parallel with each other, so as not to make any twisting
strain on the» glass— a force which, sooner or later, will cause it to break.
If the frame is too large for a board form to be laid within it, it may
be trued by lines drawn on floor or table to lay it over. The use of forms,
however, is so desirable to the amateur that we recommend having boards
cleated together in order to secure sufficient width.

To test the squareness of upper and lower frames, lay them on the
floor, make marks at the corners and turn completely over, trying both
length and width in this way. Tests by carpenters' squares at corners
are only approximate, as the angle metal is seldom perfectly straight,
especially in lighter brass. Before leaving the subject of bending the
frames to right-angles, we strongly suggest that an experimental bend
first be made with a waste piece of angle brass. A little practice will
be necessary to learn just how thin a particular lot of brass must be
filed in order to make a good bend.

The next step is to bore holes in the lower frame where it is to be
bolted through the base, countersinking for depression of bolt head, and
allowing enough room not to interfere with the glass. Now solder in
uprights to connect top and bottom frames, not melting former soldering.

It will be observed that the glass will be supported by the upright
posts, but not by the top nor bottom frames. This is corrected by solder-
ing, about every eight inches, a small piece of brass (cut from the same
material) to the horizontal frames next to where the glass is to come, thus
giving it even support or bearing on all four edges. The pieces are
soldered down perfectly flat, and if high should be filed down. Before
the glass is finally inserted it must be laid in the frame to see that the
points of contact are even. Deficiencies can be made up by a drop of
solder on the brass, and filed down as required.

The frame being trued up, it is now bolted through the base, aquarium
cement being liberally supplied in the bolt holes and between the frame
and the base, all surplus being immediately wiped away.

Soldering. In these times when nearly everybody is either building
or altering radio sets, it would seem needless to offer any suggestions on
soldering. However, the chapter would not be complete without it.

CONSTRUCTION 107

The modern electric soldering iron is a very convenient tool, but
the author has managed very well with only an automatic alcohol blow
torch. Before soldering, the surface is properly prepared by scraping and
the application of a flux composed of hydrochloric acid which has dis-
solved as much zinc as possible. Very good flux pastes are obtainable in
hardware stores. When the heat is applied and the liquid of the flux has
boiled away, touch the heated surface occasionally with soft solder wire.
Apply a little more heat after first sign of melting, withdraw flame and
proceed to quickly solder. Where work is in a position so that it is diffi-
cult to hold the pieces steadily in place while solder cools, an assistant
can instantly "set" it by pouring on a little water. Small "C" clamps
are most useful while soldering to hold uprights and side frames together.
They may be obtained for twenty-five cents or less. If acid flux darkens
the hands, the stain can be removed by diluted ammonia water.

Small Aquaria. Compact, neat and substantial aquaria can be made,
but without projecting base— in fact, without slate at all. The bottom
is self-contained concrete. The top frame and upright corner posts are
of J^-inch angle brass, and the bottom frame of 1-inch size. In the
inside edges of bottom are soldered a few brass screws. Now prepare a
mixture of one part of Portland Cement to two of clean sand, brought to
a thick, mushy consistency by addition of water. Lay the frame on glass
and pour in the cement to a depth of Y± inch, seeing that it lies smooth,
particularly at edges where the aquarium glass is to rest.

After the cement is poured and smoothed, it should be covered and
allowed to dry slowly. In about two days the frame and base can be slid
off the glass. The screws soldered on inside will always bind the concrete
base securely in place. To prevent free chemicals washing out of cement
into the aquarium water, it is well to waterproof the inside of base before
setting glass in. This may be done by melting, under a blow-torch, chips
of paraffine on the concrete.

Frames should be plated before pouring the cement base.

After making one of these aquaria the knack becomes very easy.
A row of them of uniform size presents a neat appearance and can be
used in a small space, since there is no projecting base. This style of
construction is suitable for aquaria with bases up to 11 by 18 inches.

Wired ribbed glass or slate bases may be used instead of Portland
Cement, and are recommended for larger sizes.

Glass for Aquaria. Although double-thick window glass may be
used for aquaria up to the 25-gallon size, plate-glass is so much handsomer
and costs so little more, it seems like a wise investment. If window glass
is used, the imported kinds will be found best. Plate-glass is now made
in 3-16 inch thickness. This is suitable for aquaria under SO gallons.

108 CONSTRUCTION

For those for 50 to 75 gallons, the best thickness is Y\ inch, and for
the still larger sizes up to 120 gallons, is }i inch.

Cutting the Glass. A firm, flat surface, a good straight-edge, a sharp
wheel cutter and a steady hand are the essentials in this work. Bear
on the cutter firmly but not heavily. First experiment on a worthless
piece of glass. If the wheel does not make a continuous scratch, go over
the missed portion, but do not again pass wheel over former scratch, as
this ruins the wheel. When scratch is complete, break glass with thumbs
and fingers by bending upwards at one end of scratch. If glass does not
divide easily, tap the under side of scratch with solid part of cutter until
small splits occur along the line. It will then be safe to break. Large
plate glass is best broken by placing the scratch line over the straight
edge of a table and bearing down on glass.

Setting the Glass. The edges of the glass should be carefully cleaned
with whiting, ammonia or alcohol to remove any grease. It is well to
first coat with gold size the edges which are to come into contact with the
cement, allowing this to set for a day or two. This is more particularly
needed with large plate-glass aquaria. Apply a liberal coating of aquarium
cement to the inside of frame, and a thin but well-covered coat to the
contact edges of the glass. Press into place slowly but firmly, cleaning
away at once all surplus cement. Light sticks cut of a length to brace
across inside of aquarium should be used to maintain an outward pressure
on the glass for several days until it is fairly set. After the glass is well
set, it is advisable, especially with the larger sizes, to run a line of
aquarium cement up the inside corners and along the bottom edges, cover-
ing with a narrow strip of glass, or, better, embedding a round glass rod
of from %- to f£-inch diameter in it, pressing in as far as possible and
wiping away the surplus cement. After about two weeks, fill slowly and
allow water to stand a week. Re-fill at least once again before introduc-
ing fishes.

Stopping Leaks. Large aquaria nearly always leak a little at first,
or after moving them, or even after emptying without moving. This
usually corrects itself within a few days, but, as elsewhere directed, it
can nearly always be stopped by making the water very muddy. The
particles of dirt get into the leak and choke it up. This may require
several days. The water should be stirred occasionally.

If an aquarium is quite old and fails to respond to the muddy water
treatment it should be thoroughly dried for not less than two weeks.
Tip the aquarium at a suitable angle and pour enough spar varnish
into each (inside) edge to saturate the cement and fill any cracks. Let
each edge stand until "set." Dry for a few days before re-filling. Re-
pairs on the outside are useless.

CONSTRUCTION 109

Aquarium Cements. The prime requisites of an aquarium cement
are resistance to water, adhesiveness, moderately quick setting without
ever becoming stone-hard, and being non-poisonous. A cement combining
these qualities is composed of one quart polishing or other fine sand, one
quart Plaster of Paris, one pound litharge, two ounces powdered resin,
mixed with double boiled linseed oil to a consistency of putty for glazing.
This cement has been found to be good for both fresh and marine water
aquaria. A durable cement for those who cannot obtain fine sand is
made of equal parts by weight of zinc white, whiting and litharge, mixed
with double boiled linseed oil to a firm but tacky consistency.

CONCRETE AQUARIA

As individual ideas will vary so widely in the design of concrete
aquaria, only a few (yet important) directions can be given. Cement
should be of the highest grade, fresh and free from lumps. A mixture
of one part cement to two of clean, sharp sand is about right. Wooden
forms ought to be soaked with water just before using, or else thoroughly
paraffined. Cement mixture should be wet enough to just pour, and needs
to be well tamped to avoid bubbles. Steel reinforcement rods (^4-inch
diameter) are essential, especially around the top edge, where a continuous
band should be formed. Through the bottom the bars should be wired
together, forming 4-inch squares. Do not be in a hurry to get the forms
off. The whole job should be moistened for a day and allowed to stand
for two more days if removal of forms is going to cause any strain.
Glass must not be embedded directly in the concrete, but provision made
for later setting it in with ordinary aquarium cement. If sides do not
support the glass evenly they should be cut away or built up until they do.
Otherwise glass is sure to crack when the soft aquarium cement yields to
the water pressure. After base is finished it is well to paraffine it as
described on page 107. All cement pouring should be done at one operation.

CONSTRUCTION OF WOODEN TANKS

Many fanciers are of the opinion that for the welfare of fishes there
is no receptacle equal to a well-seasoned wooden tank. For breeding
purposes they are especially valuable, but in no case should new tanks
be used at once. Occasional changes of water for eight weeks make a
new wooden tank safe for fish.

The best wood for tanks is well-seasoned cypress, the natural habitat
of the tree being in wet places. Any size tank may be made, but there
are two sizes found quite convenient and which cut out of the lumber to
good advantage. The larger measures 16 inches high, 30 inches wide

110

CONSTRUCTION

and 48 inches long. The smaller one measures 9 inches high, 24 inches
wide and 32 inches in length. For the larger size 1^4 -inch lumber is used,
which is about \y% inches when dressed. Here a board 16 inches wide
is used, avoiding seams in any of the sides, there being but one in the
bottom. The side and bottom boards are rabbeted to }4-inch depth and

Fig. 88. Wooden Tank

V/ 2 inches from edge to receive the ends. Bottom boards are tongued
and grooved. All joints should receive a preliminary coating of white
lead paint. After this is dried, a thicker coat should be applied just
before putting joints together. The tank is then clamped and 1^4 -inch
screws inserted through the sides into the bottom and ends, and through
the bottom into the ends. Cleats 3 inches wide are placed across centre
of bottom and all the way around the ends. Through the top of latter
is passed an iron rod J4 mcn thick, then secured and tightened with washer
and nut at ends. The smaller tank is constructed in the same manner,
except that cleat across centre bottom, and the iron rods are omitted.

While painting the outside improves the appearance, it has more of
a tendency to rot a tank than preserve it, as the paint prevents the
evaporation of the moisture naturally gathered from the inside. Leaks
will usually correct themselves in a few days, but should they not do so,

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112

CONSTRUCTION 113

a few handfuls of earth stirred in the water and allowed to stand several
hours or days will make the job tight. Occasional stirring of the dirty
water helps. Before filling with water the white lead should be allowed
two days to harden.

If in a place where freezing will not occur, wooden tanks should be
filled all winter. Bad open seams in dry old tanks usually close by wet-
ting for a week.

Weight of Water. With large tanks the weight of the water is some-
times a serious matter to reckon with. A gallon weighs 8 1/3 pounds.
As before stated, the gallon capacity is calculated by multiplying the
inch height, breadth and length together and dividing the result by 231.
For instance, a tank 20 inches deep, two feet wide and six feet long would
be computed in this way: 20 X 24 = 480 X 72 = 34,560, divided by 231
= about 150 gallons, which, multiplied by 8 1/3 = 1250 pounds.

CONSTRUCTION OF TANKS AND POOLS

Three types of pools will be considered, each suited to different
conditions and requirements. The first is the simplest, which is merely
a hole dug in the ground. It is the kind used by a number of com-
mercial goldfish farms. It is inexpensive and makes possible the rapid
expansion of pond capacity as requirements demand. Furthermore gold-
fishes do extremely well in a soil bottom— probably better than in cement.

If the soil is porous, it will be necessary to have an available supply
of water, or else the surfaces must be puddled with clay. The depth
should be about three feet, the water being filled to not over two feet to
avoid overflow during heavy rainfall. If water rises, it should be drawn
off to standard level. Make one corner of the pond lower than the
others. Fishes are caught in nets after water has been drawn off so
that it is standing only in the low corner. Large establishments use
pumps for reducing water level. For winter storage of hardy goldfishes,
have the pond water two feet deeper than the prevailing frost line for
your part of the country. Soil bottom ponds can, of course, be made
any size, but fish farms usually have them about 30x40 feet and arranged
in rows. A large farm will have perhaps a hundred or more such ponds.

Of course water in a goldfish pond with a mud bottom is cloudy,
the fish are hard to see and it is a messy job cleaning it out. Where
ponds are smaller and economy of construction not so important, one
might well adopt the second type shown in figure 91. This is a sloping-
side, fairly deep (2 or 3 ieeb) concrete pool with walls about five inches
thick. Reinforcing is not always necessary, but nevertheless a layer of
heavy chicken or fencing wire within the concrete gives a margin of

114

CONSTRUCTION

security. No wooden forms are needed unless it is decided to make the
ledge for holding earth for bog plants, which, by the way, is an effort
that will well repay in added beauty to the pond.

Concrete mixture should be one part cement, two of sand and four
of coarse gravel or small broken stone. Finishing coat a half inch thick,
one part cement, two of sand. The concrete pouring and later the fin-
ishing coat should, if possible, each be carried on as continuous jobs.
There is apt to be a weakness at points where the work is halted from
one day to the next, especially where reinforcement is not used. Tamp
concrete well. A pool of this style if well constructed will resist frost.

In winter fill concrete pools to ground level to counteract freezing
pressure from the outside.

The inclusion of a concrete water lily container, as well as the ring
of soil around it for other aquatic plants, is optional. If square, it will
need board forms. If round, galvanized iron circles not joined at ends,
the outside pieces tied around and the inside ones braced across. The
lily pot should be 15 to 20 inches wide and about 8 to 10 inches deep.
Topping off edges at ground level with a coping of flat, natural stones set
in cement is quite a pleasing addition.

Fig. 91. Simple Form of Concrete Pool
This requires no wooden forms unless ledge is made. Hardy water lily flowers
float at the surface as indicated.

This type of pool is well suited to hardy water lilies. If they are
used, the top of soil should be about six inches below the freezing line.
Arrowheads and most bog plants in the ledge of soil survive freezing.

Ground-level pools have charming possibilities for artistic planting
outside the edges. Their principal disadvantage is that the fishes are
open to the attacks of snakes, frogs and rats if these pests are present.

CONSTRUCTION

115

The third type of pool has concrete vertical sides, and may be used
either at ground level or above. Diagram is self-explanatory with the
exception of one point. Tropical water lilies should have the crown and

CONCRETE^

Fig. 92. Strongly Constructed Concrete Pool
Straight sides have some advantages, especially when fishes must be caught in a
net. Tender water lilies raise their flowers above the water, which should not be deep.

soil about 8 to 10 inches below the surface of the water. The tub only
needs to be raised on stones as shown if necessary to make this adjust-
ment.

Reinforcement is required if anything more than a light frost is
possible. Extra reinforcement at all corners is advisable. While giving
advice we could well add the suggestion of having the assistance of an
experienced concrete worker, or at least a helper with strong arms and
back!

The base of this pool should be about 6 inches thick and the walls
about 5 inches. A slight outward slope to the walls is desirable.

It is important that concrete work dry slowly. Protect from the
sun with litter. Sprinkle if necessary. Forms may be removed in two
days. Finishing coat follows immediately.

All concrete pools should have at least six changes of water over a
period of two weeks before introducing fishes or plants. This is
important.

We have seen many amateur-built concrete pools which were off
level. This is indeed a sad defect to discover when the first filling with
water nears the top. To avoid this embarrassment, attach a good spirit-
level to the narrow edge of an ordinary straight board long enough to
reach diagonally across corners of pool. Test it between two fixed points
that will bring the bubble in the center. Turn board around so that
reverse ends will rest on the same points again. If bubble again settles

116 CONSTRUCTION

in the middle, level is true; otherwise it must be adjusted by placing
pieces of paper between board and low end of level. Now start from
one corner, and level the other three jrom that. Check carefully before
pouring the concrete. Another way is to dig a shallow temporary trench
around the space, fill it with water and drive in four stakes to any re-
quired height above the water. To level the form with strings drawn
over tops of stakes will then be positive and easy.

We recommend against fountains and removable pipe drains. Run-
ning water chills the plants and drains are an ever-present source of
danger, as well as often being leaky. Have a low point in the bottom
and to empty, siphon from there. A screened overflow is necessary, pref-
erably through the side.

Of course it is not necessary to have the bog ledge. If used it
ought to be about 8 inches wide and 5 inches deep. If a pool is already
constructed a bog can easily be made by placing within it a hollow
square of cypress boards on edge coming to within the desired distance
of the walls. The top edges of boards may be either below or above
water surface, as water seeping through from pond will keep the ground
moist, even though raised several inches. This scheme really offers an
advantage, in that one may also use moist-situation terrestrial plants,
such as certain ferns and fancy-leaved Caladiums. The luxuriant effect
in figure 95 is worked out on this principle.

If tiles are used to beautify the concrete, they should be set on
mounds of cement immediately after concrete is poured and before fin-
ishing coat is applied.

As the author owes his entrance into the delightful fish
hobby to his previous entrance into the equal delights of a water
garden, may he here make a plea for his first love? Surely
there is no other kind of garden so sure of success, or that is
so independent of rain, or that requires so little attention, or
has so few insect enemies, or that produces its best for so long
a period.

It gives a final touch of poetic beauty to any garden, formal
or informal. As for water lilies themselves, they seem to exist
in a calm, mystical world of their own. Most of them have a
perfume suggesting a delicious sense of purity ; all have a beauty
of which one never tires. If any reader is considering having a
lily pool (with fish, of course I) the author hopes the vote will
be in the affirmative, and that it will be as large as possible!

Fig. 93. Straight-Side Raised Pool With Sunken Pot for Water Lily

Fig. 94. Same in Use

117

Fig. 95. Concrete Pool and Bog

It will readily be seen that this illustration is the same pool shown on preceding page.
It has been greatly improved, however, by the addition of Bog Plants. A hollow square
of four cypress boards is laid in the pool, the inside square being S inches smaller than
concrete edge. It is also 3 inches lower, allowing a forward slope to the soil. Soil is
composed of peat, light soil and sand. The plants consist of such Bog Plants as can be
selected from the catalogues of seedsmen, or obtained by personal collection, consisting
largely of swamp ferns, Calla Lily, Myosotis (Forget-Me-Not). Ludwigia, Moneywort,
Wild Iris (Common Blue Flag), Pitcher Plant, Sundew and Parrot's Feather (plant hang-
ing over outside wall of pool). The small white flowers on the water are Water Snow-
flakes. Altogether this is a most delightful improvement and can be recommended as an
interesting experiment to make.

This produces the same visual effect as the more substantial constructions shown in
Figs. 91 and 92.

118

CHAPTER SEVEN

Aquarium. Appliances

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Nets. The most important tool in aquarium work is a net with which
to catch the fish, yet in most instances it is of faulty construction. The
scales of a fish are easily knocked off by the hard knots in the coarse
threads composing nets usually sold. This is very bad for the fish. A
far better material is Brussels netting, such as is used on window curtains.

When fishes have to be caught from a globe, a round net is con-
venient, but for a straight-side aquarium, a square or oblong net is very
much better. Usually these cannot be purchased, but to make one is a

l il — - m—

Fig. 96. Proper Nets for Goldfishes and Young Tropicals

simple matter and well repays for the effort. Perhaps the easiest way
is to purchase a round net, remove netting, bend wires to an oblong form
and re-cover with Brussels netting. The larger kind shown is bent from
a single piece of >£-inch galvanized wire, the ends beveled and soldered
together at the handle. The two strands of wire are tied together at
intervals by fine copper wire, secured by a little solder. A net about
5 inches wide with a handle about 16 inches long is generally satisfactory.
Nets 9 or more inches square are almost indispensable for catching
small, active tropicals in large aquaria. Stout aluminum frames with
short handles are on the market. They are excellent. Net should be
somewhat shallow.

Dip Tube. Sometimes particles of food remain too long after feed-
ing. Also dirt collects in spots. Such places can easily be cleaned by
use of a dip tube. Any tube of from one-quarter to three-eighths inch
inside diameter and about six inches longer than the depth of the aquarium
will do. Glass is preferable. Hold the thumb firmly over one end, place
other end near particles to be lifted. Remove thumb, allowing water

120

AQUARIUM APPLIANCES

and particles to rush into tube. Replace thumb, lift out and empty.
The capacity of the tube can be considerably increased by heating the
centre over a Bunsen flame and blowing a sort of bulb. A blown dip
tube, with a specially designed section enlarged to about the size of
a duck's egg, may be purchased from stock.

Fig. 97. Safety Rasor Blade Aquarium Glass Cleaner

Glass Cleaners. One of the best devices for cleaning the inside glass
of straight aquaria is a safety razor blade secured in a holder which
can be obtained in hardware stores for a few cents. A blade may be
used directly in the hand, but in that case it is better to dull one edge
first in order to avoid cutting the fingers.

A chore ball of woven copper, such as used in kitchens is most excel-
lent for cleaning either straight or curved sides of an aquarium.
A dime rubbed flat against the glass will clean it.

Siphon. When much dirt needs to be removed or the aquarium
emptied, a siphon should be used. This consists simply of a hose
sufficiently long to reach from the bottom of the aquarium, up over the
edge and down again to a point near the floor. The longer the drop,
the more rapid the flow. Fill tube with water, close both ends by finger
pressure, insert one end in the aquarium and hold the other as low as
possible. Simultaneously release the ends of tube and the water will flow
as long as there is water in the aquarium at a higher point than the
discharging end of tube. Care should be taken not to draw in fish or
snails.

Fig. 98. Aquarium Forceps

Forceps. A pair of wire forceps for aquarium work is very handy.
Their construction is simple. Take a piece of J^-inch brass wire thirty
inches long and bend to shape shown in the figure. Where the wire crosses,
hammer out a small flat space through which a rivet can be fastened. A
small section of brass wire or a copper tack can be used as a rivet.

AQUARIUM APPLIANCES

121

When the forceps are otherwise completed, flatten out the ends by ham-
mering on an iron vise or other firm surface. The jaws of the forceps
automatically remain open. Pressure on the loop closes them. They will
be found useful in adjusting plants, lifting out snails, stones or other small
objects.

\-

Fig. 99. Planting Stick

Planting Sticks. To secure the roots of plants in sand would seem
a very simple matter, but when the aquarium is filled it is most difficult
to set them without the help of one or two planting sticks. These are
as simple as they are useful, being merely thin sticks with a dull notch
in the end. About three-eighths of an inch is a suitable size diameter
for the sticks. The notch should be slightly rounded on the edges to
avoid cutting the roots as they are forced into the sand. Two sticks are
better than one. Plants like Giant Sagittaria should be pressed down
from two sides. After the plant is placed to the proper depth, it should
be held with one stick while the other is used to push sand over the roots
and to press down straggling roots which have not been covered. Aquaria
should not be planted while filled, but sometimes a few plants ride loose
on the first filling, or some are added later. For such occasions planting
sticks are needed. A pair of rulers will do in an emergency. Make sticks
about 6 inches longer than the depth of aquarium water.

Fig. 100. Aquarium Scissors

Scissors. A pair of scissors with a 15-inch rod securely wrapped to
each handle is used for trimming dead leaves from plants. With this
tool plants can be reached without disturbing anything, and one can get
a better view of what is to be done than when working elbow-deep in
the water.

Live-bearing Traps. With most varieties of viviparous (live-bear-
ing) fishes it is desirable to promptly separate the mother and other fish
from the young in order that they will not be eaten. One simple method
is to take a glass funnel about six inches across the top, file a nick where
funnel joins stem, break off tube and place a small piece of U-shaped wire
in the opening, so that the wire divides the hole in half. The funnel is
then placed in a cylindrical jar or other aquarium of a size that will
suspend it by the edge; bring the water as high as possible in funnel,

122

AQUARIUM APPLIANCES

Fig. 101

Funnel Trap for Live-bearing Fishes
Obstruction in neck of funnel is a
piece of bent wire, and is open on either
side.

place female fish in funnel and
cover over with screen, so she can-
not leap out. The small wire pre-
viously mentioned will prevent
the mother fish from becoming
jammed in the outlet, but will al-
low the young to pass through and
collect in the lower portion of jar.
Another very simple and ef-
fective arrangement is shown in
Figure 102 being merely two pieces
of glass laid in an aquarium at a
sloping angle and set into two
blocks so cut as to leave a slight
space between the glasses at the
bottom of the V. This opening
should be just large enough for
the young fish to pass through.
The plan has the advantage of
giving the female plenty of space.
In fact several females could be

kept in such a "maternity ward" at one time. Unless feeding on daphnia,
a small butter dish or similar object should be placed across the bottom
of glasses to catch the falling food until the fish can eat it. Also a number
of snails in the lower part of the aquarium or jar will be needed to consume

Fig. 102. Aquarium Trap for Baby Fishes

the food that falls through the opening. Snails must breathe air, so keep
water level a little below top edges of the sloping panes. An important

AQUARIUM APPLIANCES

123

point is to rub off the sharp edges of the glass, as the fish, if alarmed,
may injure herself trying to get through the small separation.

Fig. 103. Glass-Bar Breeding Cage

The cage trap shown in above figure has several important advantages,
one of them being that it is a commercial product, and may be obtained,
at a very moderate price, from a number of dealers, delivery by mail being
quite safe. The sides and bottom are composed of glass tubes spaced
slightly apart and inserted in holes through a metal frame, the ends being
of plain glass secured against ends of tubes by bending terminals of frame.
The cage is Sy 2 inches long, 4 inches wide and 2> l / 2 inches deep. It may
either be suspended by the wire hooks from sticks across the aquarium
or hooked on the edge. Free water circulation takes place and the young
may escape through bottom or sides.

At the present price it would not pay to make this device, but should
it later be unobtainable commercially (such things do happen) our read-
ers will have little trouble making it. Brass is the easiest metal to work,
and should be nickel plated when finished. The glass bars or tubes ought
to be of about 3/16 inch diameter and set apart the thickness of a half
dollar. The two connecting strips at the bottom (turned up at the ends),
continue the entire length, and are secured by soldering, the same as the
upper strips.

A number of years prior to the invention of this cage our friend
L.M.D. developed the very good idea of a mat of glass bars, secured by
number 18 gauge fuse or aluminum wire, as shown in figure 104, the wire
thus spacing the bars perfectly apart. This is made to just fit the inside

124

AQUARIUM APPLIANCES

of aquarium and is raised any de-
sired distance from the bottom by
two strips of glass standing on edge.
Glass bars or tubes are easily broken
to exact length by first rubbing a
nick with the edge of a fine file.

The original purpose was for the
spawning of fishes having non-ad-
hesive eggs (Danios principally), but
the idea is applicable to the live-bearing species also.

Spawning Net. In the spawning season aquarium space is often
limited, particular!}' among amateur breeders who have perhaps a single
aquarium. The breeding fish should be separated from the others, as
the idle fish would eat the spawn. An easy way over this difficulty is the

Fig. 104. Method of Constructing
Mat of Glass Bars

Fig. 105. Spawning Net

use of the spawning net. This is simply an oblong bag of cheesecloth
suspended in the aquarium. The illustration will show how this may be
done. The four corners should be weighted down with bits of lead or
stone sewed in. The plants and spawning fish are simply transferred into
the net. Confined in this comparatively small space, the chances of the
eggs becoming fertilized are increased, while the netting is sufficiently

AQUARIUM APPLIANCES

125

open to allow the aquarium water to flow slowly through it and prevent
suffocation. In this way the large amount of dirt usually stirred up in
an aquarium at spawning time, and which can do the adhesive eggs no
good, is entirely avoided. The size of the net will depend somewhat
on the proportions of the aquarium, but the capacity of net (portion in
water) should be about twelve to eighteen inches long, ten inches wide,
and ten inches deep. In constructing, allow extra material for space
between top frame and surface of water.

Fig. 106. Water Circulation by Air Pressure

Constant Aquarium Filter. This device is for use in connection
with electric or water-power air pump. It is capable of a number of
variations, once the principle is understood. There are two columns of
water in the tubes, one solid and one punctuated by air bubbles, thereby
making it the lighter. This causes it to rise and therefore establish
circulation as long as air is supplied. A ^-inch diameter glass surgical
drain is shown at A. This should contain about eight small openings
and be suspended two inches above the sand. This is connected by a
short piece of rubber tubing to the rest of the system, which is of glass
tubing from 5-16- to ^-inch inside diameter. The dark sections represent
rubber joints, making the system more flexible, less liable to breakage.

126 AQUARIUM APPLIANCES

less expensive in case of repair and makes cleaning of each section easy.
(The tubes require an annual cleaning.) Air is injected under pressure
at C, which should be five inches above lowest point of pipes. This starts
the flow, which is discharged into D, a small filter suspended in the corner
of the aquarium, and just above water level. It may be made of glass,
aluminum, porcelain or earthenware, and should approximate in size five
inches in diameter by two deep, the bottom having a few perforations.
The best filtering medium in this work is absorbent cotton, which should
be laid on a few pebbles, glass bars or bits of charcoal for good drainage.
The force of air and the distance between C and the surface of water
determines the speed at which the water travels. The lower the point
at which air is injected, the greater the speed. To start the system, dis-
connect at B, suck with the lips to start siphon, re-connect while water is
running. After water in rise-tube has reached aquarium level, turn on
air-cock at C. This cock should always be closed when air is not wanted
and pump not working, in order to prevent water backing up into air
supply pipe. All rubber joints should be tightly secured by wrapping with
thread or narrow strips of adhesive tape. Rubber cement spread on
connecting surfaces helps make a good job.

This arrangement both filters and aerates the water. If filtering
is not needed, the filter can be removed and aeration will go on.

Water can be raised by this method from fifteen to twenty-five
inches above level. To secure the greater height, use ^-inch inside
diameter tube, take plenty of drop and allow eight inches from lowest
point to C. By this means and a little ingenuity a return fountain can
be made. To secure a uniform flow it would require a small tank to
receive the discharge from the pipe, and from this an overflow to aquarium
in case the water supply comes too rapidly for discharge rate of fountain.

It is not necessary to carry pipes over edge of aquarium as shown in
diagram ; they may be carried through the bottom, carrying dirty water
directly down. The rise tube should be brought up through inside, over
edge of filter. Short pieces of tubing long enough to reach above the
sand and to extend an inch below the aquarium base should be used for
passing through the slate. A very effective means of securing these in
permanent positions in the base is to melt by alcohol blow-torch some
chips of gum shellac which have been piled up around the tube. This
melting is done in the aquarium directly around the tube and is continued
until a small mound is formed. A piece of wet cardboard will protect
nearby glass from the heat. Gum shellac has perfect resistance to water.
It will adhere to almost anything and is of special value in connecting
glass to metal. When cool it is quite hard.

AQUARIUM APPLIANCES

127

Fish-Carrying Case. A box similar to illustration, built to hold the
standard straight-side candy jar is a great convenience in carrying fishes
for short distances. It may safely be used for tropicals in moderately cold
weather if the jar is completely wrapped in several thicknesses of news-
paper before placing in box, provided the
exposure is not unreasonably long. Many
of these cases are in use. The height is 14
inches.

Feeding Rings. Many aquarists pre-
fer training their fishes to look for food at
a certain place in the aquarium. One way
of doing this is by use of a feeding ring, in
which floating food is placed. It has the
advantage of confining the food to one
spot, and that when it sinks it can be over a
cleared space where it will easily be found
Telescopic-eyed goldfishes are nearsighted,
and a feeding ring helps them locate the
food. It must in truth be said that such
fishes find their food largely by the sense of
smell, and that they will, in nearly all cases, eventually locate it, but
they come to it with more certainty, having learned the use of the ring.

Fig. 107. Carrying Case

Fig. 108. Glass Feeding Ring, with Food Floating In It

The illustrated subject is three inches in diameter, and is made of
bent glass tubing. Sold by the dealers in aquarium specialties. They
may be made from a piece of cork, with a large hole cut in the centre.
After the cork becomes partially water-logged one can sow grass seeds
on it. When the grass has become about an inch high the cork is turned
upside down so the fish can enjoy themselves nibbling it off.

CHAPTER EIGHT

3*S

The Microscope in Aquarium Work

Aquarium work in general and fish breeding in particular can be
made both more interesting and more successful by the use of a micro-
scope. For most purposes a very cheap instrument is satisfactory. In
fact, a low power lens is preferable to a high in examining water for
microscopic fish food.

All aquaria contain various beautiful and highly interesting forms of
microscopic life, some harmful, some negative, but mostly beneficial to
fishes. The constant changing of varieties and quantities presents a vast
field for new study, but we are here mostly concerned with the practical
points of raising young fishes. On page 78 we refer to the use of infusoria
as food. To determine the presence of this food, touch the tip of the
finger lightly to the surface of the water, preferably to the side nearest
the source of light. This is because they are mostly at the surface and
they seek the light. Place this drop on a glass slide and observe under
a good magnifying glass or a low-power microscope. The latter is rather
preferable, as the focus can be changed as required, and it is fitted with
a mirror to facilitate observation. In the absence of a microscope the
small pocket folding lens known as a "thread counter" will do. In using
this the frame of the counter should be laid directly on the glass contain-
ing the drop of water, and the whole placed over a mirror held at the
proper angle to reflect light upwards, but too strong a light should not
be used. A little experimenting will soon show the best light to work by.

The creatures which are of value as food to newly hatched fishes are
generally of a size just too small to be detected by the naked eye, or at
most they look like specks of dust. At the same time they are plainly
observable under a good magnifying glass or low-power microscope. There
is a great deal of life in the water of a smaller size than will be shown
in this way and which probably has no food value to fishes. The high-
power microscope would show many of these organisms and thus be apt
to deceive the inexperienced observer as to the actual food value contained

MICROSCOPE IN AQUARIUM WORK

129

in the water. Also with high magnification the field of vision and the
area of sharp focus are smaller, while movements are apparently much
more rapid, making observation difficult.

The majority of the valuable organisms are rotifers. These move
in a steady, revolving or rotating manner. On page 206 will be found
instructions for propagating these organisms for purposes of feeding young
fish. Most rotifers can be readily identified as such because they swim
through the water by means of circlets of hairs or cilia arising from the
front of their heads, by the vibratile action of which they swim and

Fig. 109. Common Forms of Microscopic Animal Lite in Fresh Water

(Greatly magnified)

1. Loxodes, a very common form

2. Ceratium, a very common form, especially in ponds and lakes

3. Paramaecium, a very common form, the slipper animalcule

4. Bursaria, a very common form, one of the largest

5. Stylonycha, a very common form, found everywhere

6. Phacus, not so common as the above numbers

7. Spirostomum, common everywhere

8. Euglena, common everywhere

9. Chilodon, common everywhere

10. Trachelocerca, common everywhere, the swan animalcule

11. Eupolotes, not an aquarium in America without examples

12. Dadinium, predaceous, feeds on paramaecium and others

13. Trachelocerca, small but plentiful

14. Coleps, the barrel animalcule, common

130 MICROSCOPE IN AQUARIUM WORK

disport themselves through the water. In fact, rotifers derive their name
from the wheel-like appearance produced by the motion of the circlets of
cilia while feeding and swimming. For culture water to have practical
food value a single drop should contain at least half a dozen living
animals that can be seen in the manner suggested. Water rich in life
will show rotifers so thickly that they almost touch one another— prob-
ably two hundred in a small drop. In taking water from the culture
tank to feed the fish it should be skimmed from the surface or the
animals extracted from the water by a plankton net, which is nothing
more than a small net of the finest bolting cloth.

Besides the examination of water for living food there are many
other interesting possibilities for the microscope in aquarium work. Dis-
eases, the development of eggs, plant structure, algae, the structure of
daphnia, cy clops and other crustacean foods are a few of the subjects
which may be taken up with profitable interest.

A study of the microscopic world within the aquarium will prove a
most fascinating pursuit. An instrument equipped with a 16 m.m.
(2-3 inch) objective and a high- and a low-power eyepiece will show
everything needed, giving satisfactory magnification.

Those wishing to explore this field further will find the following
works to be helpful: "Aquatic Microscopy for Beginners," by Stokes;
"Marvels of Pond Life," by Slack; "Evenings at the Microscope," by
Gosse.

Fig. 110. A Champion Young Calico Telescope Goldfish

(From life)

131

Fig. 111. Photographing Aquarium
The outside clips hold the dividing partition forward. On this partition the inside
clips hold the smaller glass form, selected according to size of fish to be photographed.
To remove fish, allow partition to fall back. When fish swim out, remove entire partition
and lift fish with a small net.

132

CHAPTER NINE

It is obvious how important, as well as interesting, photographic
records of fishes can be. In writing on the subject in the hope of having
others enter this field of work, the author presupposes a fair photographic
technique to start with. The main requirements are a small aquarium
with a front of thin plate glass and an adjustment for keeping the subject
in focus, a few card backgrounds of different shades, a sliding board on
which to focus the camera by moving the whole instrument (preferably,
but not necessarily, of back-focus design), and a lens working at about
F5 to F6. The author does his own work on a board, the ends of which
are laid on the seats of two chairs, fastening a piece of cardboard to the
back of one of the chairs to act as a background. The aquarium, with a
front seven inches square and a thickness of two and one-half inches, is
usually stood about a foot from the background, to keep it out of focus
and to avoid shadows from the edges of the aquarium. The fishes are
kept in the focal plane by use of an adjustable glass partition. For
holding small fishes in place the following simple arrangement is used:
three pieces of glass are cut about twice the width of the thickness of
the fish, and of a length from three to five inches, according to require-
ments of length of fish. The ends are fastened together with adhesive
tape like three sides of a square. The free ends are given a cut to end
them off at about forty-five degrees or less. These free ends are fastened
to top edge of partition by clips, first filing a nick in the beveled surface
for the clip to catch in. The glass partition with this three-sided cage
attached (open at top) is then pushed up against the front glass and the
apparatus is ready to receive the fish. This not only confines the fish
strictly in the focal space, but keeps it out of the corners of the aquarium,
where it would delight in exhausting the patience of the photographer.
It is a good plan to have a number of these little cages made up to
different sizes to suit the measurement of the fish to be photographed.

Photographing to about two-thirds size is usually satisfactory.
Larger than this cuts down speed and focal depth too much. Water

134

PHOTOGRAPHING FISHES

absorbs much of the light, so that only bright days should be used. The
angle of the sun at noon is a little too much overhead to strike fully on
the side of the fish, although this can be remedied and the speed much
increased by the use of a reflecting mirror in addition to the direct sun.
This sometimes makes a beautiful effect on a silvery fish. Our photo-
graphs of Pterophyllum scalar e, Trichogaster trichopterus and the Banded
Sunfish were done in this way.

When a black background is wanted, procure the darkest medium
obtainable and construct a shade above it, so as to cast a shadow on the
background itself. Nothing seems to be sufficiently black if the sun
strikes directly on it. The water should be as free from particles as
possible, particularly when using a dark background.

It is desirable to cover the camera with black velvet to prevent
reflections in the aquarium.

Some operators use flashlights, but to the writer nothing seems as
good as direct sun, preferably from April to September, although it was
outdoors in February, with the sun glaring on recently fallen snow, that
the author made his best photograph of a goldfish— the frontispiece of
the present edition.

In photographing down through the top of an aquarium it is neces-
sary to suspend a glass at the surface, so that the bottom of it is wet
and the top dry. This obviates blurring caused by refraction due to
ripples. Where clear waters prevail in nature there is no doubt that fine
photographs of the natural bottoms of the shallower bodies of water can
be made through a glass-bottom aquarium, slightly submerged in the
water.

Fig. 112. Photographing Arrangement

The distance between aquarium and background should be sufficient to prevent a
shadow falling on background. The aquarium is raised so that the board below will be
out of the picture.

CHAPTER TEN

Marine Aquaria

The maintenance of a marine aquarium is really much simpler than
is generally supposed. If aquarium lovers realized the great charm and
the unlimited possibilities of a marine tank, there can be no doubt many
more would interest themselves in this particular form of the hobby. It
is safe to say that not a score of persons in America at this time have
saltwater aquaria, although when once established they are as easily kept
as the freshwater kinds. Then, too, there is the fascination of collecting
from a field of inexhaustible variety, giving the student always something
new to work on, with the ever-present possibility of discovering some fact
of value to science or to his fellow aquarist. To those living within easy
journey to the shore is the added attraction of the trip to the seaside,
the pleasures of which are doubled by the pursuit of such a delightful
and absorbing study.

Aeration. There are just a few points of radical difference between
the fresh and saltwater aquaria. We have elsewhere pointed out the
oxygenating value of aquatic plants, and shown how their work is desir-
able in a "balanced" or reciprocating aquarium. This factor must be left
out of consideration in the saltwater aquarium, for marine plants perform
this function to so small a degree as to become unimportant. The Ulva,
or sea lettuce, is the most satisfactory of the easily obtained plants. It
has been known to do well for quite long periods. A few bits of cork
placed beneath will cause it to float to the top, where it looks and does
best, at the same time shading the water. The beautiful Actiniae, or Sea
Anemones, which are flower-formed animals, present a bewildering array
of form and color far surpassing any freshwater plants. These were
once supposed to form a connecting link between the animal and vegetable
worlds, but this is an error, the beautiful creatures belonging purely to
the animal kingdom. As far as appearance is concerned, other beautiful
attached animals also make up for the lack of vegetable life.

For the absence of oxygen from plants we have either to depend upon
mechanical processes, or to substantially reduce our number of aquarium

136 MARINE AQUARIA

inmates. The surface of the water takes up enough oxygen to maintain
a few animals, but if our ideas are more ambitious it will be best to install
an air pump, operated by electrical power. This will more than com-
pensate for any plant deficiency, especially if the air is liberated in very
small bubbles. In the case of large marine aquaria where the water is
constantly pumped out, filtered and returned, the oxygenating is accom-
plished by a very simple and, at the same time, clever device. The water
is discharged with some force from a small pipe into the open end of
another pipe just enough larger that the water discharge pipe will fit
loosely in it. The second pipe is the mixer, and is carried to the bottom
of the aquarium, where it is bent to a right-angle so as to shoot the air
and water somewhat horizontally across the aquarium. If the aquarium
is very deep (3 to 5 feet), the intake of mixer pipe should extend about
8 inches above the surface of the aquarium. Otherwise the air in the
column of water in the pipe would make it so light that it would
back up instead of discharging in the bottom of the aquarium. In shal-
lower aquaria the end of the mixer pipe will not need to stand so high
above water-level. By this method the air bubbles are mostly very
minute, producing the effect, from a little distance, of smoke. The high
specific gravity of marine water helps to break up the bubbles much finer
than in freshwater.

Marine Aquaria. While it may not always be possible to entirely
avoid having metal come into contact with the water of the marine
aquarium, this risk should be reduced to a minimum. Copper, brass and
zinc are particularly dangerous. The metal now coming into use, Monel
metal, is not entirely free from copper, but, on the whole, is very satis-
factory, and has the advantage of great strength as well as a pleasing
light color. Marine bronze is also good and not so expensive as Monel.
Iron pipes and valves lined with lead are now made, especially for resist-
ing chemicals. These are very fine for carrying marine water to and
from the aquarium. For the aquarist working on a comparatively small
scale, lead pipe is best.

With the all-glass aquarium we have no metal problem to contend
with. Aquaria of the smaller sizes are satisfactory for marine purposes
if not overstocked. In the executive offices of the Battery Park Aquarium
in New York City, they have in successful operation a number of jar
aquaria, one of them having continued without interruption, except for
change of animals, since 1900. This should give reassurance to those
who hesitate to establish marine aquaria.

Lighting. Another radical difference from the freshwater aquarium
is that the marine aquarium requires considerably less light. When we
gee such intense light at the shore, it is difficult to realize that only a few

MARINE AQUARIA 137

feet down the light is so absorbed as to produce a very subdued effect,
yet such is the case. If a moderately strong light is kept on marine water
it will quickly turn green. To clear it will take several weeks of standing
in the dark. Requiring only a weak light should, in many instances, prove
a strong recommendation for the keeping of a marine aquarium where one
has insufficient light for the successful development of freshwater plants.

Strength of Marine Water. For some reason not understood, pure
ocean water is not as successful in the aquarium as that which has been
somewhat diluted. The reason may be that while the fishes can success-
fully withstand the change to weaker water, many of their microscopic
enemies are unable to do so— exactly the reverse of the theory of treating
freshwater fishes with a saltwater solution. Be the theory what it may,
experienced marine aquarists have obtained better results with diluted
water in still aquaria. Naturally, if new seawater can be continuously
pumped in, nothing could be better, particularly as this contains the de-
sirable small food otherwise difficult or impossible to supply.

A hydrometer for testing the strength of salt in the aquarium water
should be provided. Natural seawater has a strength of 1.023 to 1.031.
If this is reduced to about 1.020, the animals will do better than at full
strength. It should not go below 1.017, nor above 1.022.

Having established a certain water-level at a proper hydrometer
strength, it ought to be maintained at that point by the addition of pure
freshwater, never using marine water to make up for evaporation. The
salts do not evaporate, but concentrate, and soon the aquarium would be
in the lifeless condition of the Dead Sea or Salt Lake. A glass cover
will prevent some evaporation, but if an air pump is used, some evapora-
tion will be inevitable. No trouble will be experienced if the water is
kept to a level, as suggested, by the addition of freshwater.

Shipping Seawater. If seawater must be shipped, careful consid-
eration should be given to the kind of carriers used. The action of salt-
water on zinc, copper and brass is rapid, the resultant chemical action
charging the water with poisonous metallic salts. Galvanized iron is to
be avoided, as it is zinc-plated. The best metal in which to ship is tin.
This, or any other metal, should first receive a coating of asphaltum
varnish. Even galvanized iron when asphaltum-coated is safe for jour-
neys of moderate length, but the asphaltum will eventually chip off and
the pail or can should be carefully looked over each time before using.
It might be well to say here that the life of tin pails for any water will
last much longer if coated with asphaltum varnish. A thin coat spread
evenly lasts better than a thick one.

The very best water-shipping medium is a protected glass bottle or
carboy. Arrangements can usually be made to rent or borrow a few of

138 MARINE AQUARIA

these from drinking-water concerns. If possible the water should be
taken from several miles out at sea and not near the mouth of any large
river. Clear seawater may be stored indefinitely in carboys in a subdued
light, although it would be better to first filter it to remove the larger
microscopic life.

Evaporated sea salt, if dried in enamel or glass pans, is the next best
substitute for ocean water. In re-dissolving the salt, measure the strength
by hydrometer readings.

Synthetically-made seawater has not been very successful. It con-
tains 663 grams sodium chloride, 75 grams magnesium chloride, 50 grams
magnesium sulphate, and 15 grams potassium sulphate; all dissolved in
25 litres of water. Newly-made artificial marine water ought not be used
for several days, but be given a little time to ripen. An occasional stirring
helps the process.

Clearing Marine Water. It is desirable to keep the marine aquarium
crystal-clear, both for the benefit of the inmates and the pleasure of the
observer. To this end several factors must be borne in mind. Start with
clear water. Do not overcrowd nor overfeed. Use only subdued light.
Quickly remove decaying plants, dead mussels, anemones, etc. Occa-
sionally siphon off the bottom (see page 120) and, after settling, pour back
the clear water or return through filter. Very little loss of water is occa-
sioned if the dregs are thrown away after water has settled, particularly
if a tall jar is used. The filter arrangement described on page 125 is very
desirable for the marine aquarium.

Temperature. This matter depends very largely upon the climate
from which the aquarium inhabitants come. For this reason it is not
well to mix animals of tropical and temperate zones. Many of the tropical
fishes come north in summer and can successfully withstand a tem-
perature of 62 degrees F., but in the confines of an aquarium they will not
prosper in the lower temperatures. Tropical fishes are happy in a temper-
ature ranging from 68 to 75 degrees. Some of them can succeed when it
is even warmer, but it becomes difficult to satisfactory oxygenate the
water.

Fishes and other marine animals of the temperate zone prefer a range
from 55 to 68 degrees. It will be noted that the tropicals and temperates
meet at 68 degrees, so if the attempt is made to mix them, this is the
temperature that should be closely adhered to.

Collecting Specimens. The best places for collecting a miscellaneous
assortment of marine animals are the back bays, pools, pockets, marshes
and small streams where the ocean overflows at high tide and recedes
from at low. Rocky coasts furnish particularly fertile fields for the
aquatic hunter, and those of New England offer rich attractions in

MARINE AQUARIA 139

varied and wonderfully beautiful vegetation. Wood's Hole is a particu-
larly famed point for all sorts of marine naturalists and collectors. How-
ever, anybody can go to the beach nearest home and gather material that
will well repay for the effort. Two persons in bathing suits operating a
seine 4 by 14 feet (see page 112) will be surprisingly successful right
in the surf anywhere. As before stated, the little sheltered places, pools
around breakwaters, piers and rocks should be thoroughly investigated by
hand and net. As with freshwater, let the collector be not too ambitious
for numbers. It is better to get a jew good specimens home alive and
well than have a bucketful of dead and dying.

Tropical marine fishes are of dazzling beauty, a fact enthusiastically
attested by those visiting any of our large American public aquaria, or
by those so fortunate as to travel in Bermuda, or to have seen the beau-
tiful marine aquaria at Naples or Hawaii. Most of our tropical speci-
mens are collected at Bermuda and at Key West, Florida. The various
kinds of kelp and coral fishes make aquarium specimens of such bewitch-
ing beauty that any attempted word-description of them would appear
extravagant. Anyone wishing to make a collection should employ a local
fisherman at the collecting point who knows the haunts and ways of the
fishes, and who understands the danger of sudden tropical storms. Such
collections should be shipped in a liberal quantity of water and artificially
aerated by pump or pouring whenever the train is still for more than
fifteen minutes. On shipboard, new water of the proper temperature
should be frequently given.

Stocking the Aquarium. Perhaps we can repeat to advantage that
it is better to under- than to over-stock the aquarium. This is particularly
true of the marine aquarium, first, because if we spoil the water by dead
animals it is some trouble to obtain more, and second, because the animals
are used to more oxygen in the wind-tossed ocean than can be had in a
crowded aquarium.

Extra vigilance needs to be exercised when the occupants are first
introduced, as some of them may not survive the change.

It is best to start with some of the more hardy fishes, such as the
marine killifish, to see whether the aquarium conditions are in proper
working order. It will be time enough to branch out more elaborately
after this is proven.

Anemones and other creatures attached to rocks should, if possible,
be placed in the aquarium without detaching. Low forms do better if
handled with a dipper or spoon. Whether or not mussels are alive can
be determined by tapping lightly on the shell with a small stick. In
health the shell will promptly close. Gentle disturbances of the water
will show whether anemones and other low forms are living, as they will

140

MARINE AQUARIA

respond by slight movements. Care on this point is of vital importance,
as decomposition is very rapid.

Sea Horses. Owing to the vastness of the field we cannot here go
into a detailed list of marine aquarium inhabitants, but we cannot pass
the subject without special mention of those quaint fishes, sea horses
{Hippocampus) . Although appearing like some mythological animal in
miniature, they are true fishes. They make a very striking appearance in
the aquarium, always attracting great attention. Their tails are prehen-
sile and are used much the same as a monkey's, fastening themselves to
twigs, bits of grass or any small object, ready to let go in a moment,
swim a short distance and fasten somewhere else or perchance socially
link tails with another. Their movements through the water might be
described as being very sedate. Locomotion is produced mainly by vibra-
tion of the dorsal fin, the body being tipped forward at a slight angle.

Although the movement through the water
is not rapid, it has the appearance of being
accomplished entirely without effort. The
breeding habits of the sea horse are also most
peculiar. The female develops an intromit-
tent organ as the breeding season approaches,
while the brood-pouch on the belly of the
male becomes thickened and vascular. The
fishes face each other, the female advances,
places one or more eggs in the pouch of the
male, retreats and repeats until the spawning
is finished. When the eggs have hatched, the
pouch splits slightly and he works the young
out of it by gently rubbing against a firm sur-
face. The young are as perfectly formed as
the parents.

Sea horses feed upon small marine Crus-
tacea about equal in size to daphnia. Some
European aquarists claim to have gotten them
to eat dried shrimp, but, so far as we are able to learn, nobody in America
has been successful in this. Although different attempts were made to
induce them to eat daphnia, it has seldom been accomplished. The
author was fortunate enough to persuade sea horses to modify their ideas
to that extent, the process taking much patience. Daphnia can only live
about 5 minutes in seawater, so at first they all die while the sea horses
are apparently thinking the matter over. By repeated trials the smaller
fishes finally started to eat, and the larger ones took the hint from the
smaller. Shrimp will eat the dead daphnia, but if much is left over it

Fig. 113. Sea Horse
(Maximum size)

MARINE AQUARIA 141

should be quickly siphoned out or otherwise removed. Sea horses can, no
doubt, be brought to living in saltwater of a hydrometer strength of
1.017, which would probably increase the length of life of daphnia in the
marine aquarium to 10 minutes or more. As these strange fishes usually
eat by reaching out for food while attached by their tails to a piece of
sea-weed, it is necessary to gently circulate the daphnia through the
aquarium by the aeration system or other means.

These odd creatures are of world-wide distribution. On the Atlantic
Coast they are more plentiful in September than at any other time, when
they are often brought up clinging to fishermen's nets. Only one species
occurs on our Atlantic Coast. This is the one shown in Fig. 113.

Feeding in Marine Aquaria. Practically all marine animals are
carnivorous. Chopped oysters, clams, fish, worms, crab meat, scraped
lean beef and shrimp form the principal articles of diet. Canned shrimp
is convenient and usually very acceptable. It can be had at all seasons.
Little oyster crabs, either whole or cut up, make choice morsels for either
fresh or saltwater fishes.

Anemones should have small bits of food offered them with forceps
(shown on page 120), lightly touching their tentacles with the offering.
Three times a week is often enough to feed these lower forms.

The fishes may be fed every day or two, according to temperature,
always remembering that animal food not quickly eaten soon fouls the
water.

It is rather surprising to find that many of the small marine fishes
relish crisp lettuce leaves, finely chopped. This no doubt makes a bene-
ficial change for them.

Diseased Marine Fishes. Very little is known about treating the
ailments of marine fishes. As salt is the general cure-all for freshwater
fishes, it has been discovered that less salt is the best general treatment
for marine fishes that are out of condition. Short trials at hydrometer
test 1.010 are beneficial, this, of course, being brought about gradually.
Otherwise, we see no reason why animal parasites, injuries, etc., should
not be treated the same as for freshwater fishes.

As there are a number of different hydrometer scale readings, it is
suggested that the instrument to be used should first be tried in normal
seawater, which would establish a positive basis from which to work
with that particular hydrometer.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

Terraria

The terrarium has not as yet aroused any marked degree of interest
in America, but as we have followed Europe in the cultivation of exotic
fishes, it is not unlikely that we shall yet follow their study of amphibians
and other inhabitants of the terrarium and aqua-terrarium. Certainly
the subject can be made one of keen interest, offering special attractions
to those fond of making their own collections. Unfortunately, even in
Europe, the terrarium itself has not been developed into a thing of beauty.
Most of the numerous designs shown for sale are stiff and clumsy-looking,
but this may be largely overcome by artistic planting. Undoubtedly there
is still plenty of room for individuality of treatment which would give
one more the feeling of witnessing a transplanted bit of Nature, rather
than a miniature prison.

The variety of animals which may be kept is extremely large and
many of them are of distinctly attractive appearance. Those of us who
have learned to admire the telescope goldfish should suspend judgment
on some of the apparently less attractive specimens in the terrarium,
for it may be that both standards operate on the same general principle,
that is, the more hideous, the more attractive!

Aside from the matter of beauty there is a wonderful range for
observation, study and original research in the terrarium. In looking over
the European catalogs one is struck by the large number of lizards,
frogs, newts, turtles, reptiles, etc., which are exported from North America.
It will, therefore, be seen that we do not have to leave our own shore to
obtain good collections.

Terraria are divided into four natural divisions, according to the
needs of their occupants: dry-temperate, dry-tropical, moist-temperate,
and moist-tropical. The differences in these will readily suggest them-
selves to the mind, being matters mainly of ventilation, moisture and
artificial heat. The sides are usually of glass, one of them, as well as the
top, being removable in order to work inside or to introduce or take out
specimens.

TERRA RI A

143

The dry-temperate terrarium is naturally the simplest in construction,
the 1 principal requirements being open ventilation and a small drinking
pool with cement edge and mirror bottom. This seems to be necessary
to some of the creatures, as they are accustomed to seeing the sky
reflected in water and without this they do not at first recognize it as
water.

aii'" ,| ' l l'/"- f li!ll l r

I ' ' — i ■ - ^ — J^._ ' L ijlJOi — 3!

Fig. 114. Swamp Aquarium

144 TERRARIA

The moist-temperate form is only slightly ventilated and is supplied
with a larger water pool, as the animals are usually amphibians. It is
well to be able to drain this off without removal of water container.

Tropical terraria, whether moist or dry, are heated artificially from
below, the heating device being concealed beneath a false bottom. The
heat may be applied either to a pan of sand or water or used in the
form of a miniature hot- water heating system as indicated in figure 212
for heating tropical aquaria. The pipes are not carried over the top, but
through or around the bottom.

The forms of terraria are quite diverse, according to requirements
or fancy. Quite a number are divided into two halves, one side containing
a shallow pool with tall bog plants, the other side being for terrestrial
plants, the two sometimes being connected by a sloping ladder over the
division, so that the animals may cross at will. The same arrangement
is further developed into the aqua-terrarium by having the moist side in
regular aquarium form and filling about two-thirds deep with water.
Where tree frogs or other climbing animals are kept there should be a
ladder or other arrangement to enable them to seek varying levels at
different times, as this desire, seems to be an important part of their
nature. Tree frogs in some parts of the world are better known as
"weather frogs." They are kept where they may either remain in water
or climb to different levels at will, and are regarded as good barometers
to foretell approaching weather conditions. Undoubtedly the state of the
atmosphere has something to do with their movements in this respect.

Terraria for moths and insects usually have three sides of screen
and one side of glass for clear observation.

Aqua-terraria may be considered a higher development of terraria,
since their possibilities are so much enhanced on account of accommodat-
ing both terrestrial and aquatic animals and plants. One of the most
interesting kinds is devoted to the observation of aquatic insects. These
only contain a few inches of water, in which are placed bog plants, so that
the leaves stand well out of water. Very few of the aquatic insects
spend their entire lives in the water and some such provision is needed
for them to climb out. It is important that stones or other creeping-out
places be provided for turtles, frogs, newts and other amphibians, for it is
cruelty to oblige them to remain constantly in the water.

Quite artistic effects can be obtained in the arrangement and planting
of the terrarium and the aqua-terrarium. Natural bridges, lakes, water-
falls, archways, ledges, hollows, cliffs, caves and other details may be
used to good purpose, but care should be exercised not to combine the
incongruous nor introduce objects out of keeping with the general scheme.
Stones cemented together are capable of good pictorial effects. For moist

Fig. 115. Enclosed Aqua-Terrarium
145

Fig. 115 (a). Pine-tree Lizard (Sceloporus undulatus) [Halj size\

The Pine Tree Lizard in its variations is of wide distribution in the United States.
It does well in the terrarium and becomes quite a pet. These and other lizards are more
numerous than is generally supposed. This is due in a measure to their cleverness in keep-
ing out of view, having much the same habit as squirrels in hiding on the opposite sides
of trees and branches from the observer.

Fig. 116. Six-Lined Skink (Cnemidophorus sexlineatus) [Slightly reduced]
Six-Lined Lizards possess a remarkable grace and attractive coloring, especially the
males, whose under-sides are barred with brilliant metallic blue, carried partly up on the
side, adding to the sleek, corseted effect of the animal. They are native to the South-
eastern States.

No lizards should be caught or picked up by the tail, as they will purposely lose
them in order to escape the hold.

146

J

Fig. 117. Cumberland Terrapins (Young)
The undermarkings are as different as the thumb-prints of human beings, no two
appearing to be alike. The backs are usually a pleasing shade of green. Distributed in
large quantities in pet shops in the spring. Bright red markings on head. They like
small worms, bits of meat or fish and can eat only under water. Give them a place to
crawl out and keep them away from fishes.

Fig. 118. Soft-Shelled Turtle (Amyda spinijera) [Young]
These curious creatures make interesting pets, and when small can be kept in close
quarters. When alarmed they dig into the sand, but must eventually come out for a
breath of air. If the surface is within reaching distance they will do the original "rubber-
neck" act as above, rather than leave the sand. Soft-shelled turtles are purely aquatic
and have broadly webbed feet, which enable them to swim rapidly.

147

Fig. 119. The American Chameleon (Anolis carolinensis) [Two-thirds size]
The range of protective coloration in our chameleons is not unlimited, as is usually
supposed. They mainly alternate between the brown here shown (a eood average earth-
color) and a bright leaf-green, which is extremely difficult to distinguish against foliage.

148

TERRARIA 149

terraria, pumice or other porous stone will be found useful, as it retains
so much moisture and makes a good foothold for ferns and creeping
plants.

An aqua-terrarium constructed for pictorial effect is made in the
form of an ordinary aquarium with terrestrial plants arranged in the rear
corners, thus giving the effect of a complete bit of landscape. The great
possibilities of this treatment are shown in the illustration on page 145.
This has the earth in slate containers reaching all the way to the bottom,
but in a form devised later the soil is in cement pans 6 inches deep
which are hung by hooks on the top edge of the aquarium proper,
thus giving more light at the bottom of the aquarium.

Swamp aquaria have received little attention, although they can be
made very picturesque, as will be seen in Fig. 114.

Plants. Most of the plants flourishing in greenhouses will prosper
in the moist terrarium, so that the selection is very large. The dry
terrarium is much more limited in this respect, the possibilities being
confined practically to cacti, agaves, aloes, houseleeks and certain hardy
ferns which have come from dry situations.

Planting. The main point in planting the terrarium is to procure
proper drainage by the use of pebbles or broken charcoal. Plants can be
set either directly in soil above the pebbles or in pots. Fertilizer may be
used in the lower part of soil, but very sparingly in moist terraria. In
planting it is well to keep in mind the natural surroundings of the animals
and to provide, so far as possible, those conditions which are agreeable to
their natures. For instance, the reptiles like to sun themselves in open,
dry spots, and in planting this can easily be arranged. Amphibious
animals like to secrete themselves and at times hide from the light in
thick vegetation, a provision easily made in the moist terrarium. These
same considerations will present themselves when it comes to selecting a
place for the terrarium. The snakes delight to sun themselves for hours,
so in planting it is well to use only such plants that will stand plenty of
direct sunlight. Terraria have one important advantage over aquaria in
that at least the smaller sizes may be shifted from one place to another
with very little effort, so that light conditions may be changed at will and
hours of sunshine increased as opportunity offers.

Occupants for Terraria. The large majority of cold-blooded animals
of suitable sizes may be introduced. In the moist terrarium the principal
animals used are young alligators, newts, salamanders, tadpoles, frogs,
water snakes, turtles, aquatic insects and their larvae. For the dry ter-
rarium we have tree toads, hop toads, horned toads, beetles, spiders,
lizards, chameleons, tortoises, snakes, butterflies, moths and other insects.
The catalogs of European naturalists contain many interesting offerings.

150 TERRARIA

Feeding in the Terrarium. The different occupants of the terrarium
naturally require a varying range of foods. Terraria containing chame-
leons, frogs, toads, tree toads, do well on flies. It is a good plan to have
a fly trap which can be emptied into the terrarium. It is quite an amusing
thing to see the animals waiting for the flies to emerge after they have
learned that they are fed in this manner. The dexterity with which they
are caught and eaten is a never-ending marvel. While these animals can
live on little, they ought to be well fed in warm weather, giving them
once daily all the flies they can consume, which will be found to be a
considerable number. In winter when flies are scarce they may be fed
on meal worms and meal bugs, which are easily cultivated in bran flour,
once a small stock is started. Particular care should be taken not to
allow any of the meal breeding stock to escape into the house, as it is
liable to become a pest in the kitchen. Roach traps are useful adjuncts
in providing food for the larger lizards and insectivorous snakes.

As with -the aquarium, particular care should be exercised not to
allow any excess of food which is liable to decay, all surplus being
removed immediately after the feeding hour.

Alligators, carnivorous turtles, newts and salamanders are fed on
bits of meat, fish, oysters, scrambled egg and worms. Aquatic turtles
and alligators can swallow their food only under water.

Aquatic turtles should be provided with facilities for crawling out
of the water. They should not be kept with fishes, as fish is part of
their natural diet. This is also true of salamanders and newts.

Snakes and lizards require large and small insects, worms, small live
fish, toads and animals.

Box tortoises select their food from a large menu. They like almost
anything that man eats and a few things besides, including, in the last,
slugs and earthworms. Thick, sour milk is taken eagerly, also bread
soaked in milk.

To winter box tortoises dig a hole in the ground to a point slightly
below the frostline. Place two inches of excelsior below and above tortoise.
This supplies air and acts as drainage. The head should be sloped
slightly upward. Cover over with earth, heaping it up into a slight
mound. Place more excelsior on this to a diameter of about two
feet and cover over with newspaper, held down by stones or boards. The
tortoise should be buried after the first light frost and dug out after
danger of frost is past, say, October 10th to April 10th for the hibernating
period in average climate in the Middle States. The author has kept
one tortoise in this way for over thirty years. When active they should
always have drinking water available, especially in hot weather.

CHAPTER TWELVE

uariuni

It seems to be human nature, especially in America, to assume that
the best things come from distant lands— the more distant, the better.
In this search for the rare and interesting we are apt to overlook excellent
material close at hand. We have many handsome native fishes admirably
adapted to aquarium purposes. They are easily managed, tenacious
of life, varied in habits and easily tamed. Those who have made col-
lections of our own fishes have found much pleasure in this form of
aquarium hobby.

COLLECTING WILD FISHES

There are pleasures connected with the stocking of a wild-fish
aquarium which are unknown to those interested only in goldfishes. The
actual contact with Nature, the study of the fishes in their native habitat,
the ever-present possibility of finding something new, the companionship
and health afforded on outings are some of the pleasant assets of the
collector.

For this work two kinds of nets should be provided. These consist
of a minnow seine and a large landing net of fine mesh, fitted with a sec-
tional rod. The seine should be operated by two persons. A pole is
used at each end of the net, the sinker and float lines being attached
at their respective points. The bottom line should be carried well in
front of the top, and while a steady forward motion is necessary, it should
not be rapid enough to cause the float line to sink. When working over
grassy areas it is a help to have a pole attached to the centre of the lower
line, this to be operated by a third man, the idea being to keep the sinker
line close to the bottom. Seines of this type are adaptable to streams from
10 to 20 feet wide and to any larger body of water having a gently sloping
shore of firm quality and without too many obstacles. If the haul can
be ended at a natural recession or "gut" in the bank it will prevent the
loss of some fishes. See Fig. 90.

152 NATIVE AQUARIUM FISHES

These small seines as purchased are poorly equipped with floats and
sinkers, the former being too heavy and the latter too light. A great
improvement can be made by adding large cork floats, binding split pieces
together across the top line. The sinkers should be twice as heavy and
twice as numerous as supplied. Pieces of half-inch split lead pipe can
readily be used to correct this defect.

If fishes are at all plentiful the hauls are large. Care should be exer-
cised to immediately return all specimens not wanted, and it will be the
part of wisdom to want few. By crowding in cans on the home trip many
fishes die and the rest arrive in such poor condition that their lives in
captivity are short. The hands should be wet before touching a live fish.
This is well known among fish culturists.

The ordinary 18-inch folding hand-net is used in small streams where
one can make a dash into the deeper depressions by the banks. This is
done by an overhead, downward swoop, executed with the greatest pos-
sible speed. The net is continued in rapid motion, pulling it over the
bottom towards the feet of the operator. This is the only way to achieve
any degree of success. The up-scoop is the natural way to go about it,
but this ends in absolute failure.

With this net, too, we need some alterations. Take off the net from
the folding frame. Slip about 100 of ^-inch upholsterers' brass rings

Fig. 120. Proper Way to Connect Hand Net to Metal Frame

on the frame. Now interweave, parallel to the frame, a strong string be-
tween the brass rings and the top loops of the net, thus attaching the net
permanently. The object of this arrangement is to prevent the cutting
of the net when the frame drags over stones and other obstacles. Also
the net itself can be improved for our purposes. It should be of a quarter-
inch mesh and about 24 inches deep. Dyeing it a dark color is a still
further improvement.

NATIVE AQUARIUM FISHES 153

THE SILVERFIN

Notropis analostanus

Of all the native fishes tried in the aquarium by the writer the Sil-
verfin stands out as one of the most satisfactory. For aquarium pur-
poses the male fish should be selected. The ends of their fins are of a
whitish, satiny color from May till September. Darting around in the
aquarium, their sleek bodies overcast with a pale steel-blue, and sides laced
with black-edged scales, they make a most attractive appearance. Two
of them will often indulge in what appears to be a game of tag, during
which they will chase each other around a short circle, producing the effect
of a pinwheel.

A 50-gallon aquarium, with plenty of open space, containing about
ten adult male Silverfins is most fascinating.

They may be caught in the open reaches of the fresh tidal portion
of the Delaware as well as its upland tributaries.

Silverfins have been kept in aquaria for several years, but unusual
care should be exercised to cover with a screen to prevent their leap-
ing out.

They are very hardy, tame, and will eat any prepared food. Harm-
less to other fishes.

THE DARTERS

With few exceptions the Darters have no swimming bladders and
are therefore heavier than water. They move along the bottom in jerky
motions somewhat like hopping. When in reach of their prey they make
a short leap. Although this seems to be short of the mark they always
succeed in getting what they go after. One would imagine them to have
a long tongue like a frog, moving with the same invisible rapidity. The
action is of course accomplished by suction.

There is something quaint and droll about the Darters. Although
to the unscientific eye they look nothing like perches, nevertheless they
are classified with that family. They have occasionally been bred in the
aquarium. Spawning occurs among stones. The parents have not been
observed to protect eggs or young. The majority of them cannot stand
warm water.

The Rainbow Darter Esteoma coerulea is probably the most bril-
liantly colored of our native fishes, being barred with red, blue, orange
and green in most striking fashion. On account of its brilliant coloring
it is known as the Soldier Fish. It occurs in shallow streams of the Mis-
sissippi Valley. Darters are extremely fond of daphnia or very small
worms, but may become trained to taking shreds of raw meat, shrimp or
fish. They can be kept best in cool water and are well worth the effort

154 NATIVE AQUARIUM FISHES

THE ROACH, OR SHINER
Abramis crysoleucas
This fish is one that takes easily to the aquarium and is quite hardy
under any reasonable conditions. It is very active. In the sunlight
flashing its bright silver sides, it is a very pretty member of the aquarium
family. Of a gentle nature and will take any food. The natural distri-
bution is in the Northern States east of the Rockies.

THE KILLIFISH

Killifish, from either fresh or salt water, are among the most hardy
of the smaller fishes. Used largely as bait-fish on account of their tenacity
of life, they exhibit the same quality in the aquarium, standing very bad
treatment before succumbing. The barred sides and fleeting iridescent
colors are most attractive, particularly in the saltwater specimens. They
will eat anything and are harmless to other aquarium fishes. Boys
usually know this fish in streams as the "bull-head" minnow, while the
popular name on the New Jersey coast for the saltwater form is "Mum-
mychog." Average size about 3 inches.

THE MUD TROUT

Umbra pygmcea

Here we have one of the hardiest and most friendly of our small
native freshwater fishes. It is not one of the restless kind, yet it is alert
and very much alive to what is going on about it, ready to move to its
purpose with the least possible effort. The Mud Trout has a fashion of
turning its head deliberately towards the subject of interest in a way that
suggests a concentration or mental development beyond that of the aver-
age fish. Although their manner is menacing they are perfectly harmless.
They may be taught to leap several inches out of the water for a favorite
morsel of food, such as a small worm, or a shred of raw meat, held on
a toothpick. Their color is a pleasing brown, slightly relieved by darker
lateral lines and some dots.

Found in lowland and swampy waters from Long Island to North
Carolina, east of the Alleghenies. Sometimes to be had in pet stores, where
they are sold at nominal charges. One should not estimate the aquarium
value of these fishes by their market prices.

There seems to be some division of authority as to the breeding habits
of this fish. The author once saw a pair placed in an aquarium with
a quantity of algse, from the same habitat as the fishes. Next to the glass
they hollowed out a little grotto, about the size of a fist. In the morning
this was found literally lined with eggs, and the female fanning them.
Unfortunately they were infertile.

NATIVE AQUARIUM FISHES 155

THE CARP

Cyprinus carpio

The Carp is one of the most widely known of fishes. Its tenacity of
life is extraordinary, considering that it is not an air-breather or labyrinth
fish. When sold as a food fish it is kept alive for a day or two when bare-
ly moistened with water. Common goldfish well wrapped in wet Anach-
aris or Myriophyllum and packed in a tight tin box can safely be sent on
a 12-hour journey or more if temperature is moderate.

A number of varieties of carp are kept as ornamental pond and large
aquarium fishes. The principal ones are the Mirror, the Leather and the
Golden Carp. There are in this country some extremely handsome fancy
carp of Japanese breeding, being marked irregularly with red, white and
blue. They have been propagated here and it is to be hoped the breed
will become generally known.

Our photograph was made from one of these colored Carp but for
general structure it accurately represents the ordinary Carp.

THE REDFIN

Notropis cornutus
In the breeding season the male Redfin is an individual of striking
beauty, the entire pectoral and the ends of the other fins being a blazing
red. The color continues in gradually lessening degree until cold weather
sets in, when it disappears entirely. These fishes spawn together in large
numbers, the action taking place while they are massed in the form of a
great, seething ball, flashing dazzling colors. It is as a pond or pool fish
that they show best, although at a size of Ay 2 inches they have sufficient
color to look well in the aquarium, where they may be kept with other
fishes. In the 8- to 10-inch sizes they are used as food in most of the
Northern States east of the Rockies.

THE PEARL ROACH

Scardinius erythropthalmus

Visitors at different municipal aquaria have for years been much
pleased with the exhibition of Pearl Roach. They are of European origin,
where they are fairly common, and are really of no relation to our own
Roach or Shiner. There is a general resemblance, except that the ends
of the fins in the Pearl Roach are blood red at all seasons.

They were originally introduced here into the ponds of Central Park
(New York City), multiplying in large numbers, proving their adapta-
bility to pond culture. They should be a beautiful and generally satis-
factory pond fish. The larger sizes run to about eight inches. As they

156 NATIVE AQUARI UM FISHES

do not develop the red fins much before they are four inches long, they
would be suitable to aquaria of larger sizes rather than small. They
have gentle dispositions.

THE SUNFISHES
The Sunfishes are one of the most widely distributed and best known
of our fish families, American boys, in the country districts almost every-
where being well acquainted with them. There are a number of varieties.
Most of us have seen the tidy, clean spots fanned out by a pair of breed-
ers. This is the "nest" in which the eggs are deposited. Both parents
protect the young, attacking all comers in a vicious manner. Excepting
the so-called Chaetodon, or banded sunfish, all of the several species are
pugnacious, especially when large. They should not be kept with other
fishes unable to protect themselves, and it is inadvisable to have one
much larger than its fellows, as it will "bully" the other inmates of the
aquarium. Sunfishes have a decided carnivorous tendency, much prefer-
ring live worms or flies to prepared foods. They can be induced to take
shreds of raw liver. Of the dry foods, ground dried shrimp is the best
for them. The coloring of the Sunfish shows to excellent advantage in
the aquarium, and it will be found a very tame and interesting pet. It can
withstand severe temperature changes and will survive for years if suit-
ably fed. Particularly destructive to aquarium snails.

Owing to their abundance the beauty of the members of the Sunfish
family is usually overlooked. The Blue Spotted and the Long Eared of
the Eastern United States, the Orange Spotted of the Mississippi Valley
and the Blue Gill from Lake Erie are among the members which rival
many of the tropical fishes. The Blue Gill is now widely cultivated in
state hatcheries as a food fish, attaining the weight of a pound. It
is one of the best fishes with which to stock a private pond.

THE CHiETODON

Mesogonistius chcztodon

Banded Sunfishes (known also as the Chaetodon from its specific
technical name, which was applied because the vertical bars or bands
suggest the marine Chaetodons or Angel Fishes of tropical seas) build
their nests directly among plants off the bottom. They are less of fighters
and depend more upon hiding their young than upon boldly protecting
them. The Chaetodon is one of the most charming of all aquarium fishes.
Many of them are exported to Europe, where they are highly esteemed
and bring good prices. This fish has quite an individuality— its peculiar
markings, precise movements and genteel manners setting it quite apart

Fig. 121. Southern Minnow

A beautiful brilliant Minnow with a gorgeous brick-red color in the fins. Several of
these were captured near Roanoke, Va.. but through misfortune they were lost before
identification could be made. It is hoped others will again locate this beautiful fish.

Fig. 122. The Rainbow Darter (Pcecilichthys ccerueleus) \Life size]

One of the most highly-colored of freshwater fishes, hence its name. Also termed
the "Soldier Fish."

157

Fig. 123. The Orange-Spotted Sunfish (Lepomis humilus) [Two-thirds size]

BP» ■■ ' ■* *

■K|:, ,, #» * » '«

F^" ^^

.^

v " —^ , .... . . j. . %* Jfc.

* ***** #•* ^*!WMJ*»'

U * * * ■ '* ~ • .* \<^* • **

JBLfc^*.-.. *:■ \ <#V * »

Fig. 124. The Blue Spot Sunfish ( Enneacanthus gloriosus)

158

Fig. 125. Male Sii.verfin (Notropis whipplii analostanus) [Slightly reduced]
Tubercles such as shown in this illustration appear on the nose and head of a number
of fishes during the breeding season, especially on the males.

Fig. 126. Female Silverfin (Slightly reduced)

159

Fig. 127. The Killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) I Average size]

Fig. 128. The Black-Banded Sunfish, or "Ch.etodon" ( Mesogonlstius chcetodon

{Average Size]

160

Fig. 129. Young Golden Ide (Idus idus)

Fig. 130. The Redfin (Notropis cornutus) [Half size]

161

Fig. 131. Mullet or Chub Sucker (Erimyzon sucetta) [Young]

Fig. 132. The Shlner {Abramis ctirysuleucas) {Average aquarium size]

162

., .-< , , ,

Kig. 133. The Colored Carp (Cyprinus carpio) \One-third size]

Fig. 134. The Mud Trout (Umbra pygmcea) [Average size]

163

w w

'

Fig. 135. Black-Headed Minnow (Pimephales promelas)

w ''

Fig. 136. The Pearl Roach (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) [Two-thirds size]

1M

NATIVE AQUARIUM FISHES 165

from most others. It swims principally by use of the pectoral fins, which
are so transparent as to be scarcely observable, giving the fish the ap-
pearance of moving about by will-power, without physical effort. They
greatly prefer live daphnia to all other foods, but do well on scrambled
egg or particles of boiled shrimp. They are the only sunfishes that will
not kill snails. Found in ponds and slow-moving streams from Penn-
sylvania to South Carolina. They are partial to the cedar swamps of
New Jersey. At May's Landing is an excellent collecting point. The
Chaetodon often contracts a fatal fungus soon after capture, so the col-
lector should be particularly careful not to overcrowd them in the carry-
ing pail, and to give them the best possible conditions on arrival home.
Once acclimated they are hardy if fed correctly.

THE MULLET
Erimyzon sucetta

Sometimes known as the Chubsucker, the Mullet in the smaller
sizes makes a satisfactory aquarium fish, entirely harmless and of rather
attractive appearance. The back is green, sides are yellow and abdomen
is white. May be fed on ordinary fishfood but has pronounced vegetarian
tendencies. The young are sometimes mistaken for Black-nosed Dace,
but the difference is easily told by the mouth of the Mullet which is
set lower and somewhat resembles that of the Sucker. Habitat, lowland
waters of Eastern States.

BLACK-HEADED MINNOW
Pimephales promelas

The Black-headed Minnow is not well known as an aquarium fish.
The contrast of black and silver as shown in illustration correctly indi-
cates that the fish adds a note of novelty to a collection. The author kept
them for a season and they appeared to be generally satisfactory. Habitat,
Central and lower Mississippi Valley.

THE RED-BELLIED DACE

Chrosomus erythrogaster

This beautiful fish reaches a length of three inches and is one of the
most satisfactory of hardy aquarium inhabitants. During the breeding
season the belly, mouth and base of the dorsal fin of both sexes are bright
red. There are two black lateral lines on the sides, separated by a band
of pale gold, so that even when not in breeding colors, the Red-Bellied

166

NATIVE AQUARIUM FISHES

Dace is an individual of attractive appearance. It is perfectly harmless,
will eat any prepared food and is of active habits. Native to the small
streams of the Mississippi Valley. It is a community breeder, requiring
larger space than the limits of most aquaria. The author placed six of
them in a 3 x 5 foot tank in May and several months later took out 30
well developed young, but the breeding was not observed.

Owing to their extreme agility it is necessary to catch the wild stock
in a minnow seine.

Fig. 137. The Red-Bellied Dace (Chrosomus erythrogaster) [Life size]

There is little doubt that the majority who have kept this fish would
vote it the most satisfactory of all small freshwater hardy aquarium fishes.
It would be difficult to over-praise this little jewel, either as to appear-
ance, hardiness or disposition. Midwestern dealers sell them.

THE ROSY-SIDED DACE

Clinostomns vandoisulus

One of the less known, but very attractive aquarium fishes is the
Rosy-Sided Dace. The general color is silvery to green. A nearly black

Fig. 138. The Rosy-Sided Dace (Life Size)

lateral line runs the length of the body, and below this on the males is
a long patch of red, starting from the edge of the gills, as indicated in

NATIVE AQUARIUM FISHES 167

the illustration. This varies in intensity from day to day, and is brightest
from February until September. As these fishes dart about the aquarium
the flame-like appearance of the red patches is most striking. Even when
not in color there is an interesting bronze-green effect to the scales at the
lateral line. This is always visible by reflected light, and seems to show
mostly at night. If the light is turned on them at night they show very
little red color, but in a few minutes it is quite plain.

The Rosy-Sided Dace is a large minnow, takes kindly to.the aquarium
and is perfectly harmless, but unless plenty of room is provided it will
slowly decline. Found in clear cool brooks, from the foothills of the
Alleghenies, from Pennsylvania to the Carolinas.

THE BLACK-NOSED DACE

RhinicJithys atronasus

The Black-Nosed Dace is one of the best of our native fishes for
aquarium purposes. Found in abundance in small swift-running streams

Fig. 139. The Black-Nosed Dace (Life size)

of the Delaware Valley, and is widely distributed over Eastern North
America. It is an extremely active swimmer and not easily caught unless
cornered in a small pocket. From constant swimming against the cur-
rent it has developed some specialized kind of balance, so that when in-
troduced into the still water of the aquarium, the forward part of the
body continually drops so a level position is only maintained by an effort.
This condition disappears in a few weeks and a new equilibrium becomes
established.

The Black-Nosed Dace is well rounded and full of body, the belly
is clear white and the black band encircling the body is quite intense.
It is perfectly harmless and will take almost any food. It is quite sub-
ject to a parasite which embeds itself deeply in the sides of the fish, pro-
ducing an appearance that can best be described as looking like "fly-
specks." This is common to many of the small wild fishes, and while
it is not known to have any serious results, it is unsightly. Specimens

168

NATIVE AQUARIUM FISHES

free from the parasite should be chosen where possible. The usual length
is from two to three inches.

They have been known to survive in the aquarium for several years.

THE STICKLEBACK

Froebel, the founder of
the Kindergarten idea, wrote
delightfully of the Stickle-
back. Perhaps that accounts
for its being fairly well-
known, because it is seldom
kept as an aquarium fish-
anyhow not in the United
States. This is a pity, because
its breeding habits are unique.
The male is the smaller,
and during courtship (at least
in the four-spine variety) the
ventral fins become a fiery red.
He selects a group of plants
suited to his peculiar needs.
From his body is exuded a
substance which he attaches
to the plants and proceeds to
draw it into a silk-like thread
which he continues to wrap
round and round until he has
constructed a wonderful little
nest, such as shown in the il-
lustration. An opening for
water circulation is left in the
side. The female deposits eggs
in the nest and there her do-
mestic duties end. Father
Stickleback assumes entire charge, his principal duty being to keep up a
circulation of water between the eggs. This he does by alternately blow-
ing through the top of the nest and the side opening. Eggs hatch in
about a week and for approximately ten days more he guards them jeal-
ously against all possible enemies, regardless of size.

Sticklebacks prefer eating live daphnia or chopped clams or oysters.
They are not well suited to live with other small aquarium fishes.

Fig. 140. Sticklebacks and Their Nest

NATIVE AQUARIUM FISHES

169

THE EEL

Auguilla rostrata

Small eels may be kept with a collection of wild fishes, but they look
out of place with and are dangerous to goldfishes, having the same habit
as the sunfish and catfish of nibbling at the long fins. They are good
scavengers, quickly eating any dead snails or other decomposing matter.
Nothing is too bad (nor too good) for them to greedily eat.

THE CATFISHES

Any of the forms of the Catfish are well able to take care of them-
selves in an aquarium. If not large they will not touch other wild fishes,

Fig. 141. The Stone Catfish (Schilbeodes insignis) [Slightly reduced]

but should not be kept with goldfishes, as they are likely to nibble at their
long fins. Catfishes like animal food best, but will take boiled cereals
or the usual prepared fishfoods.

THE GOLDEN ORFE OR IDE
Idus idus
Originally imported from Southern Germany, the Golden Orfe has
become one of the best ornamental pond fishes. They do not stir up the

Fig. 142. The Golden Orfe or Ide (Idus idus)

170

NATIVE AQUARIUM FISHES

mud as do goldfishes and are more active in avoiding their enemies. The
color on the back is light orange, shading to lighter on the sides and
white on the abdomen. The general appearance is not unlike a common
goldfish, of a rather pale, brassy color. The extreme length is two feet,
requiring probably ten years of growth under favorable circumstances.
The young are suitable for aquarium keeping, but the top must be
screened to prevent their leaping out.

THE GOLDEN TENCH

Tinea tinea, aureus

As a showy fish of golden orange hue the Golden Tench is con-
sidered second only to the goldfish itself. Covered with exceedingly fine
scales and dotted with black it presents by reflected light an iridescent
effect, comparable to that of an opal. By transmitted light they are
sufficiently translucent to show the skeleton and internal organs. Al-
though timid, they become quite tame and will live on any kind of fish-
food. Harmless to other fishes and otherwise thoroughly desirable.
Tenches should be bred in open ponds with mud bottoms.

Fig. 143. The Golden Tench (Tinea tinea) [Young]

The Green Tench is the ancestor of the Golden Tench and differs
only in coloring, its color being of a bottle-green character. "Tench-
green" is a popularly recognized shade of color in some parts of Europe.
Tenches are liberally supplied with protective slime and it is believed by
some that fishes injured by accident search out a tench to rub the injured
part against. For this reason it has been known as the "Doctor Fish."

NATIVE AQUARIUM FISHES

171

THE SOLE

Trinectes maculatus

Among the interesting novelties in aquarium fishes is the Sole,
often known as the freshwater Flounder. It has been called the "aero-
plane fish" on account of its easy, horizontal progress through the water,
the swimming being accomplished mainly by an undulating motion of
the fins at the edges of the body, as shown in the two upper figures of
the accompanying illustration. The third figure indicates the under
side of the fish, while the lowest shows the Sole as it lies half concealed

Fig. 144. The Sole {Trinectes maculatus) [Young]

in the mud. In the aquarium these fishes frequently fasten themselves
flat to the sides of the glass by suction. They may be gathered from the
muddy flats of tidewater streams of the Atlantic Coast. Chopped worms
make a suitable diet for them. Sizes such as pictured are good aquarium
inhabitants.

FEEDING WILD FISHES

The majority of native fishes when first subjected to captivity are
timid, shy or resentful. Disturb them as little as possible for several
days until they have grown into the confidence that they are in the
hands of friends. Try feeding with small bits of tempting prepared
fishfoods, small earthworms, white worms (see page 79), particles of
canned shrimp or such other food as would seem to be particularly attrac-
tive to the kind of fish in question. If everything else fails it will be
found that nearly all small fishes will eat live daphnia (figure 55).

A very good practice is to place newly caught wild fishes with
suitable domesticated ones. They will then learn new ways and to eat
new food surprisingly soon.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

The Goldfish

ft?

Whether or not the goldfish was first introduced into Europe for the
amusement of that famed courtesan, Madame Pompadour, will probably
remain an open question. Certainly we owe nothing to that beauty for
the development of these wonderful fishes, but to the humble and patient
Orientals who must have spent hundreds of years of tireless effort in
selective breeding, which culminated in the marvelous specimens brought
to America by Admiral Ammon in 1874. These and later importations
formed the nucleus for a group of well-to-do enthusiasts, mostly in and
around Philadelphia, to use as breeding stock. With particularly favor-
able local conditions the development of breeding these fancy or toy
variations was rapid. Fine stock has for many years been sent to other
parts of the country, and in some instances it has flourished.

There are two root-stocks from which the goldfishes of today have
originated. Both are members of the carp family. The European gold-
fish, Carassius carassius, has never been developed into any of the fancy
forms except by crossing with cultivated types of the Asiatic stock,
Carassius auratus. The Orientals, as stated, and principally those of
Korea, China and Japan, must be given credit for first establishing, by
selective breeding, the goldfish as an ornamental pet, as well as for the
incredible lengths to which they have gone in fixing fancy breeds.

Although a common American goldfish has been described by at
least one writer, no such division properly exists. Those sometimes found
in American waters are invariably from escaped or liberated stock from
one of the two varieties mentioned, or from their hybrids.

The normal color of fish of both root-stocks is of a silver-gray or
olivate hue, but with a strong natural tendency towards albinism, which
produces occasional specimens of a yellow or golden color. By selective
breeding these colors have become fairly well fixed, although in the
scaled varieties the color is still at first carp-like, turning to gold, white
or black, as a rule, in from three to eight months. Instances are quite
common where they live to an old age without ever turning.

THE GOLDFISH 173

Colors in Goldfishes. There are two great divisions among fancy gold-
fish—the scaled and the so-called "scaleless" classes. The scaled speci-
mens are those having a metallic lustre, usually of red, white, olive-gray
or black. The great majority of commercially bred stock belongs to the
scaled division. The more prized colors in common goldfish are deep
red (called "gold"), white (called "pearl") and a combination of the two.

Those of smoke-color are known as silverfish, their color and metallic
lustre somewhat resembling tarnished silver. It is the ancestral carp
color, and every "scaled" goldfish first passes through this color period.
Breeders call them "uncolored," because they have not yet turned to one
of the more desirable colors. Goldfish of the metallic or "scaled" type
are liable to change color at any time, the least liable to turn being the
white or pearl fishes. In young fishes the turning takes about a month
after it starts, but in older ones it may take half a. year. After the first
change from "silver," the rule is to progress towards a lighter color, that
is, from black to red or from red to white. Exceptions are very rare. It
will also be found that the lighter colors are the more persistent in breed-
ing, and as these are considered the least desirable, it is well to avoid light-
colored fish when it comes time to select breeding stock.

The interesting patterns of red and black we often see and admire
are not permanent. They are turning red.

Solid black is a color which for some unknown reason is confined
exclusively to the telescope goldfish. In breeding telescopes it not infre-
quently happens that the abnormal eye development never takes place.
These fish may develop any or all of the color peculiarities of their parent-
stock except that of being black. In the breeding of fancy goldfish any
freak combination of characteristics seems liable to occur, but the writer
has never seen a good black fish without telescopic eyes, although a num-
ber of reported cases have been investigated.

We have referred to "scaled" goldfish. The other division, not
known to the general public, but which plays a highly important part
in the goldfish fancy, is the "scaleless" variety. These fishes are really
not without scales, but the scales are of such transparent character that
they are scarcely perceptible to the eye. However, they usually show
with moderate distinctness in a clear photograph. "Scaleless" fishes do
not have the metallic sheen of the ordinary goldfish. The colors are more
refined and present a far greater range of variety. The most important
difference is the presence of blue and lavender tints. Among the scaled
fish these are not found. A further account of these colors will be found
in the description of the Calico Telescope on Page 184 and the chapter
on Judging Goldfish Competitions, Page 194. Figure number 110 shows
an unusually fine specimen of a young scaleless goldfish of the Calico type.

174 THE GOLDFISH

Another important peculiarity of this type is that they never go
through the period of being silverfish, but at the age of about six weeks
commence to develop their permanent colors. The first color is white,
sprinkled with small black specks. A good idea of the final color may
be had in ten weeks, although as elsewhere remarked, the very finest of
the calico colors are not fully apparent under two or three years. ' ' Scale-
less" fish have a charm of refinement distinctly their own and make most
interesting inmates of the aquarium. So transparently scaled are some
specimens that at the breeding season it is often possible to tell females
by seeing the eggs through the translucent walls of the abdomen. The
main objection to the transparently scaled fish is that the ribs or rays
of the fins are rather weak. Soon after the fins have attained a high de-
gree of development the fish is no longer able to hold them in a position
where they will show to advantage. In the majority of instances the
dorsal and caudal fins (the latter hereafter popularly referred to as
"tails") commence to droop and sag in from two to three years, while
the scaled fish often maintains an admirable stiffness of fins for years.

Length of Life. Although millions of common goldfish die annually
at an early age under outrageously crowded conditions in miniature fish
globes, they are endowed by Nature for a long life. Under fair condi-
tions and proper management, they should live from ten to twenty years
in an aquarium. In ponds where not subjected to severe winter condi-
tions they will live at least thirty years, if not caught by enemies. The
Fish Commission at Washington had a number of specimens over thirty
years of age. Questions are frequently asked regarding the length of life
of fancy goldfish, but these are always difficult to answer satisfactorily.
A large proportion die under the age of 6 weeks. Of the remainder there
are quite a few which do not develop rapidly, always remaining "runts."
A few of these drop off from time to time during the winter, but in the
early spring months they, and all other weak fishes, go rapidly, so that
very few of the undersized are left by the first of May. Those passing
this period are generally good for a few months more, when the death
toll is rather heavy again. To answer the question in a general way, it
might be said young fancy goldfish with a body length of not over 1 inch
in October (no matter when hatched) are quite unlikely to live a year.
Those from 2 to iy 2 inches will average about three to four years under
good conditions. Anywhere from six to twelve years can be considered a
long life for a fancy goldfish, although well authenticated instances ex-
ceeding this are known.

Development of Fancy Breeds. In breeding single-tail fish together
in which there is no known double-tail stock, one will sometimes find a
fish with the lower lobe of the tail double, making it a reasonable suppo-

THE GOLDFISH

175

sition that this was the first "break" in form away from the common
stock. This is called a "tripod tail." The next higher development is
the "web-tail," in which both tails are fully formed but joined at the top

Fig. 14S
Single Tail

Fig. 146 Fig. 147

Tripod Tail Web Tail

Evolution of Double Tail or Fantail Goldfish

Fig. 148
Double Tail

edge instead of being completely divided. From these early "breaks"
have been developed the fully divided tails, double anal fins, et cetera.

The origin of those weird telescopic-eyed goldfish has been the sub-
ject of a number of fanciful theories, but there can be little doubt that
the strain was produced by selective breeding from the individuals which
showed more or less bulging eyes. This would be the correct scientific
theory, and a recent discovery helps confirm it. The goldfish belongs
in the same family as the minnows (Cyprinidce), and a minnow has been
found in Nature with enormous and perfectly developed telescopic eyes,
proving that the break is a natural one that might be expected to occur
occasionally, and from which a strain of the same kind could be estab-
lished, especially in a subject so readily bred as the goldfish. The speci-
men referred to is not a case of the disease called "pop-eyes," common to
the sunfish and others. The eyes are purely telescopic and have been
so determined by Henry W. Fowler, an ichthyologist of world repute
who has specialized on the Cyprinidce. Fig. 167, an actual life photo-
graph of the fish is convincing, but the preserved specimen can be seen
at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. In life the fish was
shown in a number of local aquarium society exhibitions.

By careful selective breeding, types have become fairly well fixed,
but the goldfish has a strong tendency to revert far back to ancestral
types, in form as well as color, often to the annoyance of the breeder.
One of the most interesting things about a spawning of goldfish is the
tremendous variety in the color. In a lot of a thousand young scaleless
fishes there may not be two alike, and none may resemble either parent.
That this is not always so is a self-evident fact, else selective breeding
would be without results.

The accomplishments of Oriental breeders seem only to be limited
by the scope of the imagination. Through the most patient efforts, not
only of a lifetime, but of several generations of a family, such changes

176 TEE GOLDFISH

have been wrought in form and color that some of the breeds do not
seem to even distantly resemble the common goldfish. That this is so
is often evidenced by the fact that strangers to the fancy on first seeing
a collection of highly developed fishes want to know what they are. An
amusing incident illustrating this point occurred in the preparation of the
present volume. An engraver who made the die for the front cover billed
the publishers with "One Die of Butterfly"! Those outside the fancy
sometimes seriously refer to the fins of fancy specimens as "wings."
Among fanciers a high dorsal fin is often referred to as the "sail." One
of the interesting side-lights on almost any fancy is the spontaneous de-
velopment of new words to fill special needs, and which will not filter into
the dictionaries for a long time. In this particular connection we are
reminded of the current use in the goldfish fancy of the word "finnage,"
meaning the total area and style of the fins. One might say, "This fish
has beautiful color and body shape, but the finnage is poor."

When it is borne in mind what a considerable period of time must
have been necessary to bring about these strange breeds, it is not sur-
prising that radical ideas and characteristics should, to a certain degree,
be expressed in them. The Telescope Goldfish was originated in China
and undoubtedly bears a resemblance to Chinese art. It has a sort of
beautiful ugliness, a deliberate grotesqueness, intended first to shock and
then excite curiosity. The wonderful range of colors, too, suggests the
art of the Chinese— that race which continues today to lead the world
in the clever use of color. The Japanese Fringetail Goldfish is another
expression of national art. It is the very embodiment of that aesthetic
elegance and grace so well understood by the Japanese people. America
has not been without its logical contribution. Here in this vast melting
pot it is our desire to bring forth combinations of the best from the old
worlds, to which is added a touch of our own individuality. Although we
have made several other combinations in crosses, the two most important
are the Veiltail Telescope and the Scaleless Fringetail.

It is believed that the first cultivated goldfish came from Korea, that
country from which even ancient China borrowed ideas, education and
arts, but so little is known of this that we have to take our facts as we
now find them. That there have been and are breeds of goldfish in both
China and Japan which have never been exported is well attested by trav-
elers and by a book published in Paris in 1870, by de Sauvigny. This
remarkably illustrated work shows many of the varieties in color. The
only known copy in the United States is in the reference library of the
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, where it will be shown those
interested. The fact that several of our known breeds are correctly illus-
trated gives reason to believe in the drawings of the unknown varieties.

THE GOLDFISH

177

THE COMMON GOLDFISH

The common Goldfish, being closely related to the original stock,
has most of its characteristics. It is very hardy, can withstand extremes
of temperatures if brought about gradually, can remain out of water
for several hours when kept moist, will eat almost any food, is easily
tamed and is a prolific breeder. The body is rather long and flattened
on the sides. The head is short, wide, and without scales. Names of the
different fins should here be carefully noted, as they are frequently re-

Fig. 149. The Common Goldfish (Carassius auralus)

ferred to in other parts of this work. The Dorsal Fin (on back), the
Caudal Fin (the tail) and the Anal Fin (small fin nearest tail) are all
single in the Common Goldfish. The Pectoral Fins (nearest head) and
Ventral Fins (nearer lower centre of body) are paired.

One of the easiest characteristics to fix in a breed is the lengthening
of the body and fins. This brings us to a description of the first of the
fancy goldfish varieties or breeds.

THE COMET GOLDFISH

The first of the long single-tail breed appears to have originated
in the ponds of the Fish Commission in Washington in the early eighties.
Mr. Hugo Mullertt either secured some of this stock or later originated
a strain of his own. At any rate, he was the first to place them on the
market in quantity. The Comet is long of body and fins, the tail in par-
ticular being very free-flowing. In movement this fish is the most grace-
ful of all the fancy goldfishes and it can swim with great rapidity when
necessary. This activity has made it easy for the fish to revert to its
ancestral tendency to leap out of the water. Aquaria containing Comets

178

THE GOLDFISH

should be covered by a screen, particularly in spring. The Comet makes
the most beautiful and generally satisfactory pond goldfish where a

Fig. 150. The Comet

decorative effect is desired. They are perfectly hardy over winter in a
deep pool where the water does not freeze to the bottom. The type
breeds quite true to form and many thousands of them are raised annually.

THE SHUBUNKIN

Fig. 151. The Shubunkin
One of the more recent introductions is the Shubunkin. This is sim-
ply a transparently scaled, highly mottled, common goldfish. All breeders

THE GOLDFISH

179

of fancy stock occasionally get fish which are known as "sports" which
have reverted back in form, but not in color, to the original type. The
Japanese have now fixed them as a breed, and export a fair number of
them. They are of the most striking variations in color, and make a
hardy, attractive aquarium or pond fish. The colors most sought after
are blue backgrounds, sprinkled and mottled with dark red, brown,
yellow and black.

THE FANTAIL GOLDFISH

To the popular mind this type represents "fancy goldfish." It is the
"fantail" of commerce and is propagated in enormous quantities in
America, Japan and Europe. Being of comparatively long body and not
burdened with excessively long fins, it is healthy, agile and well able to
take care of itself in culture pools. In a well maintained aquarium it

Fig. 152. The F ant ail

ought to survive for years. Those who succeed in keeping them in an
aquarium for a year or two are sometimes pleasantly rewarded by having
their pets develop long, graceful fins.

THE JAPANESE FRINGETAIL GOLDFISH

In point of pure elegance there is no breed of goldfish equal to the
Japanese Fringetail. Our illustration is taken from a sketch of the
fish, made by its owner. A few words regarding this, probably the best-
known individual fish that has ever been owned in this country, might
be of interest. The Japanese Imperial Government sent a collection of
its best goldfish to the World's Fair at Chicago in 1893. Only a few of
them survived the journey and still fewer lived through the Exposition

180

THE GOLDFISH

These had fallen into a diseased condition and were given to Mr. William
P. Seal. He cured them and later sold this one, now known as "The
World's Fair Fish," to Mr. Barrett, for a comparatively small considera-
tion. At that time the fish had not dsveloped the wonderful qualities
which have made it famous. It was one of those cases where "blood
will tell."

Fig. 153. The Japanese Fringetah. (Veiltail or Broadtail Type)

Regarding this fish as a type of perfection that could not be improved
upon, the Aquarium Society of Philadelphia had a drawing of it made
from a sketch and used as a society emblem. The society later had the
fish struck on its medal. It lived to an age of about fifteen years.

The characteristic points of the Japanese Fringetail are brought out
in the illustration. The body is short, rounded and chunky, with short
head and flat eyes. The lower fins are long, pendant and delicately lace-
like, and are all paired. The dorsal fin is as high as the body is deep.
It should be carried erect, producing the effect of a sail as the fish moves

THE GOLDFISH

181

grandly through the water. As in most other varieties, the deeper colors,
both in scaled and scaleless specimens, are the most highly prized. Scale-
less Fringetails, the American production obtained by crossing Japanese
Fringetails with Chinese Scaleless Telescopes, are exceedingly refined in
appearance.

The illustration shows the tubercles or "pearl organs" on the gill
plate and pectoral fins, usually indicative of the male sex.

THE JAPANESE NYMPH GOLDFISH

The Nymph is virtually a single-tail Fringetail. The anal fin and
tail are single. The latter, instead of drooping, should be carried out
straight, and well spread. This fish is usually a "sport" from Fringetail

Fig. 154. The Nymph

stock. Although seldom deliberately bred, fine specimens are very attrac-
tive in an aquarium and are often retained by fanciers. In their active
movements, as well as in points of conformation, they make a pleasing
contrast with the double-tailed varieties. One of the principal features
is the dorsal fin, which should be large and carried quite erect, as de-
scribed for the Fringetail. The body requirements are also the same.

182

THE GOLDFISH

CHINESE TELESCOPE GOLDFISH

This most curious fish is either of Chinese or Korean origin, but was
undoubtedly brought to its highest stage of development in China. The
name correctly implies its chief peculiarity— projecting eyes suggestive
of a telescope barrel. These make a very weird appearance, and almost
without exception produce a shocking impression on being seen for the
first time. Telescope eyes vary quite considerably in shape and in
direction. The majority of them are spherical or conical. Tubular eyes

Fig. 155. Early Type Chinese Telescope

are rare and highly prized, but any form is considered good so long as
they are large and stand out far from the head. Most telescope eyes
point in the same direction as normal eyes, but some point forward.
This is unusual. The Celestial Telescope has still more peculiar eye
formation. This is described under its own heading.

One point in common between all Telescope goldfish is that in the
early weeks of life the eyes appear entirely normal. Until they actually
start to "develop eyes" at anywhere from two months to even two years,
it is impossible to tell whether or not they will become Telescopes. The
usual development period, however, is from three to five months. Should
they pass ten months without turning, they may be safely called Japanese
Fringetails. Many such fish that have come from Telescope stock are

THE GOLDFISH

183

used to breed to Telescopes to produce Telescopic young. This is usually
successful in the first generation, but it has a tendency to spoil the breed
by gradually reducing the size of the eyes. Telescope fishes of the present
time are, for the most part, considerably inferior in point of eyes com-
pared with the stock of the first years of the present century, due mainly
to breeding too exclusively for short bodies and long fins. Artificial
type characteristics in any kind of breeding can, like liberty, only be
maintained at the price of eternal vigilance.

THE CHINESE SCALELESS TELESCOPE GOLDFISH

As before stated, "scaleless" is somewhat of a misnomer, the fish
being transparently scaled, making the scales difficult to detect. We
use the word "scaleless" in its accepted popular sense.

Fig. 156. Chinese Scaleless Telescope (Dorsal view)

Fish of this general division are divided into two color classes-
Plain Scaleless and Calico. The Plain Scaleless is red, white or a com-
bination of the two. Red in scaleless fish is quite different from that
in scaled varieties, being more of an oxblood color, producing a highly
refined appearance. In scaleless fish the bodies do not have a metallic
lustre. The colors seem as though they had been laid on by the delicate
hand of a water-color artist. These fish have white fins, sometimes
dotted with black, and rarely mixed with red. During the first few
months the roots of the tails are usually dark, but this gradually disap-
pears.

184

THE GOLDFISH

The Calico Telescope, from the viewpoint of the fancier, is the most
important member of the family. To excel in breeding it is the ambition
of many. When a prize is offered at a competitive exhibition "for the
best fish shown," it will nearly always go to a Calico Telescope goldfish.
Its name is suggestive of its coloring, but the colors are by no means in
geometrical arrangement, as they are in fabric. Red, yellow, brown,
gray, black, blue and lavender are laid in fantastic blotches and spots over
the body, usually on a lighter background. Many small dots of black are
sprinkled over the body and fins. In extra fine specimens red dots will
also appear in the fins. Note figure 110. The color chiefly sought is blue,
and the more blue the more valued the fish.

THE SCALELESS VEILTAIL TELESCOPE

Fig. 157. Ideal Veiltail Calico Telescope

While it is true that some of the early Chinese scaleless importations
had broad tails and medium length bodies, it is highly probable that
none of them equaled in short bodies and long fins the present American
standard type. We crossed Japanese Fringetails with Scaleless Chinese

THE GOLDFISH

185

Telescopes, thereby producing two new varieties which have become
permanent— Scaleless Japanese Fringetails and Scaleless Veiltail Tele-
scopes. Both have been bred for broad-tail qualities (veiltail), and may
be considered an American variation. The characteristic points of the
Scaleless Veiltail Telescopes are the same as those for the body and fin
formation of the Japanese Fringetail and the eyes and coloring of the
Chinese Telescope. The coloring almost always tried for is calico, but if
a fish fails in this and still retains the other characteristics of the breed,
it is considered a good fish. If the fish turns out black, it comes under
the following classification.

THE CHINESE MOOR TELESCOPE GOLDFISH

Fig. 158. The Chinese Moor

The Moor is a most striking breed of the goldfish, its intense, vel-
vety black color forming a rich contrast for the more gaily colored speci-
mens in the aquarium. The intense blackness extends to every part of
the fish except the under side of the belly. This shades off to a blue-gray
or a slight golden tint. In the latter case the fish is likely to eventually
turn gold. This is not certain, nor is the blue-gray a guarantee against
turning, although it is less likely to do so. Breeders have not found that
the greatest percentage of blacks is produced by using two blacks, but by
crossing a deep red scaled fish with a black. A good Moor, with the body

186

THE GOLDFISH

and fin development of the Fringetail, is a very choice fish, and is always
in demand. The accompanying illustration, made from a very fine yearl-
ing fish, does not give a full idea of the intense black color of the original.
Some of this had to be sacrificed in order that the drawing might show
all details of the fish. Our photographic illustration of a Veiltail Moor,
on page 203, will give a better idea of the color.

If the foregoing references to Fringetails and Veiltails are found con-
fusing to the reader, a more detailed explanation will be found under
the following chapter, "Judging Goldfish Competitions."

THE CHINESE CELESTIAL TELESCOPE GOLDFISH

Fig. 159. The Celestial (Top view)

The Celestial is a telescopic fish without dorsal fin and with its
pupils on the tops of the eyeballs. A most extraordinary creature indeed.

For a long time an erroneous belief existed that the peculiar eyes
of the Celestial Goldfish are produced by placing the young in jars which
were lighted only from a small slit in the top. Although this variety is

THE GOLDFISH

187

difficult to breed, it has been done several times in the United States. No
peculiar contrivances of any kind were used. At the usual period of
about twelve weeks they developed ordinary telescope eyes in the regular
way. Later the pupils gradually turned towards the top of the head, as
shown in Figs. 159 and 182.

If any such peculiarity had been produced by mechanical means,
it would not be reproduced in the offspring. By some Orientals the
Celestial Goldfish is said to be considered sacred on account of its con-
stant heavenward gaze, and is accorded a place in their temples.

The Celestial Telescope is the most difficult of the imported gold-
fishes to rear or to keep alive in the aquarium.

THE LIONHEAD GOLDFISH

**»

Fig. 160. The Lionhead, or Buffalohead

In point of grotesqueness and the amazing accomplishments of breed-
ing fancy goldfishes probably nothing surpasses the so-called Lionhead.
It is often remarked that the name is not particularly appropriate, but it
seems to have become established. "Buffalo-head" would be a much
more descriptive and appropriate name. There are three strong char-
acteristics to this fish. The first is a thick growth over the gill plates and
head somewhat resembling a large raspberry. The second is the entire
absence of dorsal fin, and the third is the extremely thick, short body.
The growth on the head seldom commences before the age of six months
and sometimes never appears. It is frequently well developed in four

188

THE GOLDFISH

years and increases in size as long as the fish lives. After the head
growth has become quite thick it is advisable to keep the fish in running
or other well oxygenated water. The mechanical difficulty of breathing,
owing to the thickness of the gill plates, is considerable and unless there
is plenty of oxygen the fish is liable to suddenly expire when in appar-
ently good condition. The tails and anals should be double, but defects
in these points are not considered serious if head and body are good.
The colors are the usual white and red of the common goldfish. Pearl
white bodies and pale yellow heads are not uncommon. A few trans-
parently scaled specimens have been produced by crossing with trans-
parently scaled fish of other breeds. One or two Lionheads in a mixed
aquarium add considerably to the variety. It was believed by some that
the absence of dorsal fin was the result of its being extracted by Japanese
breeders while the fish was young. This has been proven a gross error
for the same reasons stated in paragraph on Celestial Telescopes.

THE ORANDA

Fig. 161. The Oranda

In the opinion of the writer an Oranda was originally a Lionhead
with a dorsal fin— in other words, a Lionhead which did not come true
to form. However, it is recognized as a variety and is accorded a place in
goldfish exhibitions. The fins and body are longer than in the Lionhead.

Fig. 162. Life Size Illustration of a
Precociously Developed Young Goldfish

163. Life Size Illustration of a Goldfish Same Age as Shown

Above

It scarcely seems credible that these two fishes are of the same age,
but they are both between seven and eight months of age. Sometimes
the difference in growth is even greater. The reason for this variation
is unknown.

These illustrations also demonstrate the statement (page 2. 1 , ) that
"runts" sometimes show extraordinary fin development. The upper fish
will never increase much in size and will probably die within a year,
whereas the lower fish has a good chance of living several years and de-
veloping into a beautiful aquarium specimen, because it has strength and
the fins are of the right shape for future development.

This is about the right size for a fancy goldfish in October which
has been hatched in the Spring.

189

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190

Fig. 165 . Prize-Winning Scaleless Telescope Goldfish

191

Fig. 166b

Fig. 166a

Medal of the Aquarium Society of Philadelphia
(Exact size)

The first medal offered by an American Aquarium Society. It was awarded originally
for the best fish owned and the best fish bred by a member; also for distinguished
achievement or services in the advancement of aquarium study.

Fig. 167. Telescopic-Eyed Shiner

An extraordinary case of natural development of the telescopic eye, giving us a hint
that the early strain of Telescopic-Eyed Goldfishes was a freak of nature. (Referred to
in text on Page 175).

192

Kig. lo7a. Perfect Shubunkins
(Photographed in natural colors)

192a

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

Among aquarium societies there is a certain demand for competi-
tive exhibitions of goldfish varieties. The difficulties of making satis-
factory awards are considerable, due in part to varying ideas as to what
constitutes standards of perfection. To reduce this difficulty to a mini-
mum the Aquarium Society of Philadelphia instituted a series of con-
ferences of leading fanciers in order to establish a satisfactory and uni-
form scale of standards. The diagrams shown herewith represent a
composite of the best ideas obtainable. The majority of leading societies
have adopted them as a whole.

The "point system" of judging, as it is called, is too slow and
laborious for use on an entire large exhibition. The two or three best
fish, selected on general appearances, should be set aside from the others
and judged independently by three judges, on points. The totals are then
averaged and awards made.

In those classes requiring double anal fins the fish is penalized three
points for having only one.

In the Fringetail classes the tails must be fully divided to receive
consideration.

The Longtail or Fringetail group is divided into two classes, the
Veiltail and the Ribbontail. These are also called "broad-tail" and
"swallow-tail" or "cut-out-tail." In the Veiltail the centre of each tail
is indented or forked less than one-third of its total length. The swallow-
tail is cut in to one-third or more. The diagram on page 196 will show
this.

The making of these classes has caused some confusion. The author
believes that fishes of these two types and those on the difficult dividing
line should all take their chances together. The division was undoubtedly
made as an expediency in order to make more awards and thereby please
as many people as possible. So far as can be determined, no such divisions
of fin shape have ever been recognized in China or Japan, and the same
was true here until the period of 1910-12, when it became a conspicuous

194 JUDGING GOLDFISH COMPETITIONS

fact that nearly all winners of competitions were of the broad-tail type.
While the Veiltail is the more difficult to handle and to breed, it is ac-
cepted as the standard to be striven for. The word "veiltail" was adopted
by the author from the German Schleierschwanz, and is more truly de-
scriptive than "fringetail," a word more apt to describe the split and
ragged ends of the fins of a fish out of condition.

In competitions goldfish are divided into the scaled and "scaleless"
classes, the latter being transparently scaled. The scaled fishes are col-
ored gold (metallic red), silver (metallic drab or smoke), pearl (metallic
white), and moors (blacks). The first should be of a deep shade of red.
The second is a transitory color and varies but little. As a color value it
ranks low. The pearl is a grade higher, but light colors in general are
not favored. Moors should be of a deep blue-black, free from the ap-
pearance of a white scum. These blacks are never completely black
under the belly. It is at this point that they usually begin to turn red,
which is liable to happen to a Moor at any age.

"Sealeless" fishes are divided into red, white, mottled and calico.
The preferred shade of red is of the deep oxblood color. White ranks
lowest. Mottled is a combination of red and white, while the highest
prized is the calico, a combination of all the colors in finely divided spots.
In this class the all-important color is blue or lavender, the deeper the
better, and also the more the better. The ideal Calico has a body back-
ground of blue, red and white, over which is a sprinkling of fine black
dots. The black dots and some red ones are also freely distributed over
all the fins, which are otherwise white in these and all "scaleless" fishes.
The highest development of this color seldom occurs under the age of
from two to three years.

There are special competitions for fishes under one year old. A
recent ruling in this connection is that a fish to be judged must have
a body as large as a half dollar. Also that the body of an adult must
be as large as a dollar. This is because many "runt" fishes, if judged
strictly on points, would carry off the awards, their development having
gone all to fins.

With reference to Lionheads the main points are the hood and the
shape of the body. The hood should be as large as possible. It should
envelop the whole head and rise sharply at the point where the head joins
the back. While color is not an important feature, the preference is for
a brassy body and a deep red head. Pearl colored fishes with pale yellow
heads are also prized. Anals should be double and the tails fully divided,
but no credit is given for fin length. The body should be deep and
broad, the back well arched, without flatness in the centre. Orandas
require long fins, but not such chunky bodies.

JUDGING GOLDFISH COMPETITIONS

195

Charts Showing Ideal Figures of the Principal Goldfish Varieties,
Together with Valuation Points

COLOR 18
STYLE 5

Fig. 170. Fringetatl (Veiltail)

COLOU 18
STYLE 5

Fig. 171. Fringetatl (Ribbontail)

Color is

EYES 18
STYLE 5

Fig. 172. Telescope (Veiltail)

color te

STYLE. S

Fig. 173. Oranda (Veiltail)

196

JUDGING GOLDFISH COMPETITIONS

EYE* 32

COLOR 18.
STYLE 5

Fig. 174. Lionhead

COLOR 18
STYLE! 5

Fig. 175. Celestial

Double

Body Tail Dorsal Fins Color Anals Style Eyes

Telescopes 18 18 14 4 18 5 5 18 100

Japs 24 26 18 4 18 5 5 100

Nymphs 25 27 20 5 18 5 100

Comets 20 32 20 5 18 5 100

Telescope Nymphs 19 19 16 5 18 5 18 100

Celestials 18 18 4 18 5 5 32 100

Shubunkins 10 10 10 5 60 5 100

Head

Lionheads 18 18 4 18 5 5 32 100

Orandas 18 18 14 4 18 5 5 18 100

Fig. 176

Fig. 177

The above two illustrations show the two types of tails. At the left the "Swallow-
tail", "Ribbontail" or "Cut-out-tail;" the right the "Veiltail" or "Broadtail." All varieties
of the fancy goldfish may be subdivided into these two classes for purposes of competi-
tion, but it is a step of doubtful wisdom, for in many cases it is impossible for the judges
to decide even to their own satisfaction in which class a fish belongs, much less to the
satisfaction of the contestants.

PRICES OF GOLDFISH

197

Prices of Goldfish. This is a difficult topic to cover in a satisfactory
way, but as it is one which interests many readers, we will try. The
commons up to two inches range from ten to twenty cents; up to foui
inches, about twenty-five to thirty cents. "Comets" are about twice the
price of commons, and "Fantails" about three times These prices are
for localities within easy shipping range of the wholesale supplies. In
some places it would no doubt be necessary to charge more.

From commercial store fish to really fancy stock is quite a step, and
it is here that the buying public needs a little enlightenment. On the
one hand we often hear fanciful rumors of fish being worth hundreds and
even thousands of dollars, and on the other hand the under-valuation of
rare specimens is just as ridiculous. Many think that for two or three
dollars they should be able to take home prize-winning beauties. As
stated in the chapter on Breeding Goldfish, the percentage of truly fine
fish in a hatching is small, and, as in other lines, those who want the best
have to pay for it. Prices will change some from year to year owing to
varying success in breeding, and at best these figures can only be ap-
proximate. Still, they are nearly enough correct to enable one to decide
whether to go in for fancy goldfish stock, and if so on what basis.

Young in
August

Young in
October

Adults

Extra
Fancy

Shubunkins
and Nymphs

25c

50c

$1.00

$3.00 to
$5.00

Jap. Veiltails

50c to
$2.00

$1.50 to
$4.00

$2.50 to
$5.00

$5.00 to
$15.00

Telescopes
(scaled)

50c to
$2.00

$1.50 to
$4.00

$2.50 to
$6.00

$8.00 to
$16.00

Telescopes
(blue Calicos
and Moors)

50c to
$3.00

$2.00 to
$6.00

$3.00 to
$8.00

$10.00 to
$30.00

Lionheads

50c to
$3.00

$2.00 to
$5.00

$4.00 to
$12.00

$20.00 to
$75.00

Celestials are seldom on the market. When obtainable they are
about the same price as good Orandas, $10.00 to $25.00 each.

The prices of fine Lionheads are high because it takes years to de-
velop a large hood.

It might be added that it is no easy matter to procure the extra fancy
grades, even at top prices. There are comparatively few of them and
breeders naturally want to hold them for purposes of propagation.

As to sources of supply, note advertisements in the different aquarium

magazines.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN

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The breeding of fancy goldfishes is one of the most fascinating of
diversions. Also it is one of the most instructive. It should be said
that, on the whole, the breeding of the goldfish is not difficult, and may be
undertaken by beginners with reasonable prospects of success. It is the
production and maintenance of the finer and more exacting requirements
of the fancy varieties which present the real difficulties. Goldfish, possibly
more than any other creatures, draw their characteristics from far-re-
moved ancestors. Or again they may become a counterpart of either
parent. This makes a considerable element of uncertainty, since the
characteristics of their preceding stock have for the most part contained
a great deal of variety, due, no doubt, to experimental crosses. This
produces a most interesting and sometimes annoying variation in a lot of
young goldfish. As the fish gets beyond the small fry stage the breeder
becomes intensely absorbed in daily observation of points of form, color
and size as they appear.

The percentage of fancy fish coming true to type is usually small.
Ten per cent, of fish to pass the critical inspection of the fanciers' eye
is not considered bad. Besides these, about fifty per cent, of the hatch
will come true, but will be qualified by slight defects. The balance may
be anything at all, single-tail and web-tail fish from double-tail parents
being the principal disappointment. These percentages are averaged
from general breeding, but are liable to wide variation. Sometimes there
is no fish in a hatching to approach the quality of either parent ; some-
times a large percentage is better than both parents. If a strain is care-
fully watched for several generations and no fish varying from the de-
sired type is allowed to breed, the percentage of young coming true can
be kept very high.

Considering the other great variations of points in fancy goldfishes,
it is remarkable how well-fixed we find the telescopic eyes. From well-
developed telescopic stock there will probably be not over two per cent,
of young which do not sooner or later show this peculiarity.

BREEDING GOLDFISHES 199

The beginner should get his first experience in breeding the more
hardy varieties— the comet, for instance— but this stage passed he should
select none but the best breeding fish out of known good stock. As
previously stated, the best time to purchase new stock is in September and
October, preference being given to the larger fish about seven months
old. At this period the dealer-fancier is usually willing to sell off some
of his larger old breeders. These are more showy than the young, but
should not be selected.

SEX IN GOLDFISHES

The chief indications of a male fish ("buck") in the breeding season
—about January till August— are the small tubercles appearing on the
gill plates, and sometimes on the first ray of the pectoral fins. These
are quite a little smaller than pin-heads and the fish must be viewed
at a certain angle in order to see them. (See illustrations, numbers 110,
153, and also 187). Females sometimes show these spots, but rarely.

The female fish ("roe") is usually shorter and fuller of body, par-
ticularly when carrying spawn. The spawn as a rule is larger on one
side of the fish than the other, so that in looking directly down on the
fish's back it may be found to be curved to one side. After spawning
is over this deformity often remains. In a female which has spawned the
vent is always a little protuberant. The eggs can often be seen through
the abdominal skin of females of the scaleless type.

Early in the year the young males will begin swimming after the
females, following close to the vent. Without observing any of the fore-
going rules the sex may often be told in this way. If this is observed
before March, the sexes should be separated, as early spawns are not to
be desired, unless one has very special facilities for securing a supply of
live food. If the spawning can be delayed until May, results will be
more satisfactory. The reasons for this are that the harmful long cold
spells are less likely to occur and that living food can be obtained with
more certainty. Spawning may be somewhat delayed by separating the
sexes and by keeping the fish in cool water. With this object in view the
females should be placed where they cannot rub against plants, as it
induces an excitement at this time liable to promote spawning, even with-
out males being present.

BREEDING METHODS

As spawning time approaches the fishes should be well fed on nour-
ishing food. Finely chopped earthworms are excellent. Live daphnia
are as good. Scrambled egg, alternating every other day with regular
fish-food, is a fair substitute for live food at this time. When the breed-

200 BREEDING GOLDFISHES

ers have been selected they should be placed together by themselves. If
possible there should be three males to one female. This insures a higher
percentage of fertilized eggs than if only one male is used. If the definite
results of a certain cross are wanted, then use only one male. A second
female not spawning should never be present, as she will devour the eggs.

Papier mache tubs are very nice for spawning in, but seasoned wood
tubs or tanks will do. The aquarium may be used, or the spawning net
shown on page 124. Aquarium should be at least 10-gallon size.

Should there be no spawn after the fishes have been together several
days, remove about a quarter of the water daily and replace by fresh,
slightly cooler water. This is stimulating. Some intimation of an ap-
proaching spawning may be had by the fact that for several days before
the spawning takes place the males occasionally "drive" the ripe female.
This usually increases in intensity the evening before, and when spawn-
ing is in full swing it develops into a wild chase punctuated by short
periods of rest. So vigorous is the swimming at this time that fish with
large fin development generally have their fins torn and frayed. Males
with shorter caudal fins (tails) are the more rapid swimmers and their
fins become less torn. As these are also usually the young, vigorous males,
they are to be preferred for breeding purposes. Spawning usually starts
at daybreak and lasts till mid-afternoon. It may be repeated every few
weeks until the first of August, but the first spawn of the season is the
largest.

Goldfishes deposit their eggs preferably on floating aquatic plants,
and these should be freely provided (first making sure they contain no
snails or other enemies to fish eggs). The best are water hyacinths (with
as large roots as possible) and bunches of myriophyllum. The female will
swim over the plants and drop the eggs. As they fall the male passes
over and fertilizes them by the ejection of spermatic fluid. The eggs
are of a mucilaginous character and adhere where they touch. This egg
adhesiveness is one of Nature's interesting little secrets. Man has never
succeeded in making a substance that will "take hold" under water and
yet not dissolve.

The eggs are about 1-16 of an inch in diameter and are at first of a
pale amber hue, becoming still paler and more difficult to see on the
second and third days. The infertile eggs turn white on the second day
and soon become the centre of a ball of fungus. Their comparative prom-
inence soon convinces the beginner that most of the eggs are bad. He is
pleasantly surprised, as a rule, to see what a large number hatch after
all. The fish drops from ten to twenty eggs at a time, and after short
intermissions repeats the operation. A complete spawning of a medium-
sized female runs from five hundred to one thousand eggs. Large fish not

Fig. 17S. The Common Goldfish
This style fish is unquestionably the ancestor from which has been developed the
extraordinary variations which we have today. It is probable the process has taken over
a thousand years of patient effort by Oriental fish breeders.

1

Fig. 179. The "Faxtail" of Commerce

Representing the first stage in the development of fancy varieties. A hardy fish
which ought to live at least five to ten years in good aquarium conditions.

Most commercial aquarium fishes are not over one year old when purchased.

Stock of this size when raised on fish farms is about one to two years old. After
being placed in aquarium the growth is much slower.

201

Fig. 180. The Comet
This fish was bred for graceful lines and length of fins.

Fig. 181. High-Grade Fantail of Commerce
Here we have a connecting link between the Common Fantail and the highly de-
veloped Japanese Fringetail. The subject of this illustration is a brilliant, glistening,
metallic white color, known in the trade as a "pearl" Goldfish, but which is more
popularly known as a Silverfish.

202

Fig. 182. Celestial Goldfish (Reduced one-half)
One of the most extraordinary of all weird development? in domesticated fishes. The
eyes, in addition to being telescopic, have the pupils in the top, gazing heavenward.

Fig. 183. A Perfect Veiltail Moor (Reduced one-third)
Considered one of the finest black goldfishes ever bred. The short, deep body, the
proud dorsal fin, the broad, luxuriant tails, the very prominent eyes, the velvety blue-
black color, combined with splendid carriage, make this remarkable fish a pattern which
we may hope to equal, but hardly to surpass.

203

Fig. 184. Top View

ggtf| . .

J

Fig. 185. A Champion Lionhead Goldfish

While the Lionhead is a comparatively rare fish, there are several thousands of
them imported annually from Japan and quite a few bred in this country. Of all speci-
mens seen, this is probably the most highly developed. Experts consider this a wonderful
specimen and not likely to be surpassed. In addition to the head, which looks like a
huge raspberry, note the absence of dorsal fin. The preferred color for the body is a
brassy yellow. The development of such a hood indicates an age of at least six years, and
possibly much more.

204

BREEDING GOLDFISHES 205

infrequently spawn over three thousand. This refers to the first breeding
of the season. As previously remarked, subsequent spawnings are consid-
erably smaller.

As the plants become covered with eggs they should be removed from
time to time, allowing a few minutes for the last deposit to become fer-
tilized. The eggs when dropped are slightly flattened. They have a tiny
pore, and as the egg rounds itself like a rubber ball that has been squeezed,
it sucks in water charged with the spermatic fluid, thus helping impreg-
nate itself. The egg-covered plants should be removed to large enamel
receptacles, containing clean water of the same temperature as breeding
tank. Enamel is not absolutely necessary, but is desirable in the early
stages, as it facilitates observation. If more convenient, the fish may be
removed after spawning and allow the eggs to hatch where they have
fallen. One of our leading breeders makes an egg-trap composed of a
number of bunches of myriophyllum, secured together in a radiating
circle, like the spokes of a wheel. About ten bunches are used. The tinfoil
is removed from each and again tied with thread. The same thread is car-
ried half an inch to the next bunch, and so on until they are all arranged
on a string, which is then knotted together in the form of a circle. The
fishes spawn in this with their heads to the centre, and as the eggs are
discharged in the direction of the rays of plants, the chances of the eggs
finding a lodging place in them are very good. Such a circle need not be
removed until well filled with eggs. Some females eat their own spawn,
so removal of eggs is safer if hyacinths or small bunches of myriophyllum
are used. No snails should be present, as they eat the eggs. However,
after eggs are hatched, snails should be used to eat the infertile ones.

Beginners frequently inquire whether it is possible to rear young
along with the old fish. It is not. Upon completion of spawning the
fishes begin eating the eggs. What few they miss may hatch, but the
fry are sure to be eaten, except in a pool or pond having an abundance
of protective vegetation in which they may hide for several weeks.

The development of the embryo under the microscope is plainly ob-
servable and is extremely interesting. The hatching time is from four to
fourteen days, according to temperature. At a temperature ranging from
70 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit they should take from five to seven days.
This is considered to produce stronger fish than a slow hatching. The
hatching trays and young fish should be kept in a light place, and, if
possible, where they may be protected from temperatures below 60 or
over 80 degrees. If stood in hot sun for several hours in a shallow tray,
the eggs are liable to be "cooked," and therefore spoiled.

When the alevin or newly-hatched embryo bursts from the egg it
is a very weak creature. It appears a mere thread with a pair of eyes

206 BREEDING GOLDFISHES

» — - — ■-■ " ■ ■ ■ ■ -- — ~ r ~ :

at one end and small lump in the centre. This lump is the yolk-sac and
serves as subsistence for the first few days. At first the alevin can only
swim by a few jerky motions, and has the power of sticking wherever it
touches. At the age of one day they are to be found hanging on the
plants and the sides of whatever receptacle they are in. In from two to
three days they are swimming freely. When the yolk sac has been
absorbed, which is in about three days, the babies will need some food
which has been previously prepared. The first natural food is a large
variety of microscopic animals known under the general heading of in-
fusoria. These are present in all exposed water which has stood a few
days, but in order to have sufficient for fish food it is necessary to have
conditions favorable to their culture. This consists mainly of vegetable
decay. Dried and powdered lettuce or duck-weed leaves or pea flour,
sprinkled thickly on the water, produce good results in a few days, kept
in a warm place and a subdued light. Also a quantity of hay over which
boiling water is poured will soon produce the creatures. Decaying leaves
of aquatic plants are very good for the purpose. A low-power microscope
or cheap magnifying glass should be employed in this work. (See page
128.) After the culture is apparent and the fish are swimming freely,
occasionally dips of culture water should be put in with the young fry.
Sometimes the infusorians can be found freely in standing pools, particu-
larly where the water is not very clean, and where there are no cyclops
or other carnivorous crustaceans. A rotifer, Brachionus rubens, some-
times occurs so thickly that the surface of the water appears to be cov-
ered by a thin, rusty scum. When such a scum is observed in a stagnant
pool some of it should be placed in a small bottle and observed with a
low-power magnifying glass. If there is the appearance of dust-like par-
ticles moving continuously about, it is very likely they are rotifers. A
thimbleful of this yellowish water which has been skimmed from the sur-
face contains more rotifers than several gallons of ordinary stagnant
water, and the breeder who can locate this kind of live food when his
fish are from one to three weeks old is in good luck. Very small live food
tends to keep the young fishes more nearly a uniform size. If daphnia are
fed at first, it is only the more robust individuals that can eat them, and
the result is a rapidly increasing disproportion in size that soon ends in
cannibalism, unless the young giants are promptly placed by themselves.
Small pools about a cattle yard are particularly favorable to infusoria and
rotifera, but, of course, if the water is very dark it should be used spar-
ingly. This sort of food should be used for about ten days to two weeks.
Illustrations in figure 109 show types of this living food, but one does
not need to be very particular as to the exact form. In general, anything
alive that is too small to be well seen by the naked eye, but which is

BREEDING GOLDFISHES 207

visible under an ordinary magnifying glass, will answer the purpose.
Collection can be made with nets of fine bolting cloth. If green water
can be had, some of it should be put in with the young fish. It contains
vegetable matter of value to very small fry. After the fry have notice-
ably increased in size they should be fed young daphnia which have been
screened through a fine wire tea strainer. As size increases, feed full-
size of daphnia. (See page 81.)

In instances where it is not possible to secure living food for raising
young fishes they may be started on rice flour, yellow of egg forced
through bolting cloth or fishfood reduced to a powder and sifted
through cheese-cloth. As they increase in size an excellent diet is the
paste from boiled oatmeal after straining it through muslin or cheese-
cloth. Powdered shrimp or codfish as described on page 70 can be
added to the oatmeal to advantage. This oatmeal diet had best be fed
in a miniature fish globe, bowl or deep saucer submerged in the tank.
Scrambled egg with a little Cream of Wheat or Cream of Barley cooked
in it makes one of the best substitutes for live food, to be used after the
babies are six weeks old. Pancake flour (composed of different flours)
is good either to sprinkle on the water or cook into a paste.

Whether fed on living or prepared food, young goldfish should be
fed very liberally. They will eat more than their own bulk in a day.
This is essential to securing large, strong stock of good constitution. They
eat almost constantly. It is better to feed several times daily than to
put in a whole day's supply at one time. With prepared food it is liable
to foul the water with long standing, or too many daphnia introduced at
one time exhaust the oxygen in the water. This lack of oxygen retards
growth and may produce suffocation.

Forcing Growth. Contrary to previous theories, numbers of our
leading breeders now use a drip of water in the tanks with young fish
over one month old. In many cases this plan seems to produce remarka-
ble growth. The use of an ordinary overflow in this connection is inad-
visable, particularly if outdoors, as a heavy downpour of rain is liable to
carry off the small fish. If the tank used has an overflow pipe, a large
wire guard covered with cheesecloth will answer the purpose, but the
cloth should be renewed occasionally, as the water rots the fabric. In
a tub, a very good drain can be made by placing a two-inch collar
of stiff felt around the top. Secure the felt in position by securely
wrapping a cord around it as close to top of tub as possible, allowing the
felt to stand about one inch above sides of tub. This will not only secure
the young fish, but will prevent the loss of any daphnia by overflow.

Best results are had in raising fishes outdoors, but one invites catas-
trophe by placing them out in the first warm spell of spring unless it is

208 BREEDING GOLDFISHES

possible to again bring them indoors promptly on the arrival of the cold
spells sure to occur in most climates.

No matter how goldfishes are fed, there will be a tremendous differ-
ence in their growth, and it will be desirable to sort them into sizes several
times in a season. The really practical thing to do is to pick out the
"growers" which have good points (there will be few enough with this
combination), and a few of the most promising of the second size. Dis-
pose of all the rest by sale or gift. They will make someone happy.

This wholesale culling should not be done later than midsummer,
so that the choice specimens will have the full benefit of the extra space
and food. Even many expert fanciers fail to get the best results on
account of trying to raise too many young in a given space.

A peculiar fact is that with otherwise identical conditions and food,
goldfishes will attain a greater size in a large tank than in a small one.
That is why fishes in small aquaria seldom grow after purchase.

Small fry should be dipped out and never poured. Rough handling
kills them almost instantly.

Goldfishes at any age should be at least partially protected from
the direct glare of the sun, so that they may at will go into the sun or
shade. This is particularly true of young blue Calicos, whose delicate
tints are apt to bleach in excessive direct sunlight. A few sticks to form
a rough lattice over the tray or tub will do very well. In case of rain the
sticks, unless already weather-beaten, should be removed, as water from
new wood is injurious. If the fishes are in a position where they get only
about two hours of sun, no protection from light need be considered.

Coloring Age. Most young will change in August from their baby
color to approximately their final color.

Breeding Age. Strong goldfishes begin breeding at the age of about
one year. For the spawn to amount to anything in quantity a female
should have a body length of two inches or more.

Sterility. Excessive forcing of growth of deep-bodied fancy gold-
fishes often carries a penalty. In cases where the young in October have
bodies of 3 inches or longer, and in general have the appearance of fishes
at least two years old, they are likely to prove sterile and to have short
lives. "Too much of a good thing" is a possibility here too.

In-breeding. A certain amount of in-breeding is necessary in order
to preserve the best points of a strain of stock — say a cross # as close as
first cousins. Closer than this weakens the .vitality of the stock. When
we have two breeders of good ancestry, but of no blood relationship, we
are likely to get strong fish, but with poor points.

Note : On pages 209 to 216 the principal points in the story of Goldfish

Breeding are re-told in picture.

Fig. 186. A Ripe Female
The body does not appear so full as this in all cases. One must he somewhat
familiar with the natural shape of the fish in question in order to judge its condition. If
the scales stand out it is a case of dropsy.

Fig. 187. A Ripe Male
Indicated by the small dots on the gill plate.

209

Fig. 188. Telescope Goldfishes Spawning
This unusual photograph shows two females spawning on a ring of Myriophyllum.
The smaller fishes are the males, in vigorous pursuit. Males do not average of smallei
size than the females, but the younger ones are the more active and fertilize a higher
percentage of eggs than when older.

On wholesale fish farms where it is not practicable to use or prepare a sufficient
number of aquatic plants for spawning purposes, another method is in general use. A
plain square frame is made of about V& inch lumber, 18 inches square and 3 inches
deep. Poultry netting (about 1 inch) is attached to the bottom, making a general
arrangement somewhat like a sieve. Egg-catching material is attached to the wire
(on the inside). The frame is anchored and submerged one or two inches so that
the fishes can swim over the edge, to spawn on top, but the spawning material itself
should extend above the frame to lightly touch the surface, and should be dense
enough to allow no eggs to fall through. Other fishes present cannot eat the eggs
from the shallow position on top, while the frame prevents their nibbling from the
sides. The spawning material used in Japan, and sometimes imported here, is willow
roots. Sod of any strong grass with the earth washed away is more generally used
in this country. In 1928 it was discovered that Florida Moss serves the purpose ad-
mirably. As it does not rot and is very cheap, it will probably come into general
use. There is no reason why this scheme cannot be adapted to the needs of the
small breeder, but one should remember to soak a new screened frame for several
days before using it in a small body of water.

Florid' 1 Moss is also very good as a refuge thicket for young tropicals.

210

Fig. ISO. Goldfish Eggs (Slightly magnified)
Being of a pale amber color, goldfish eggs are very difficult to photograph as they
actually appear. The one beneath the arrow gives a more correct idea than any of thf
others, but the general distribution of the eggs on hyacinth roots is shown in a charac-
teristic manner.

Tt is not uncommon for beginners to mistake the jelly-like masses of snail eggs foi
goldfish eggs, although they look nothing alike.

211

Fig. 190. Goldfish Eggs, Three Days Old (Magnified two diameters)
Three infertile ones have been attacked by fungus. The nineteen good ones are really
more difficult to see at this stage than the illustration would indicate. The fungus does
no harm to the fertile eggs.

h.

-^■V*!- 1

Figs. 191 to 196. Development of Goldfish Eggs
Greatly enlarged drawings made at intervals of thirty-six hours, in an average tern
perature of sixty-five degrees. First figure made at age of one day.

v..-^~ -'T* 1 ^"^.*--..-*^.

Fig. 197. Newly Hatched

Goldfish Fry Fig. 198. Three Days Old,

(Same as shown in Fig. 199) With Fins Formed

(Same Enlargement as Eggs)

212

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i

-

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-

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Fig. 199. Newly Hatched Goldfishes (Life size)
Clinging in characteristic fashion to the side of the aquarium. They move about
frequently and swim with effort, the air bladder not having yet filled.

I '"■

\

V

v

V

'.-!• ■:.,

X

V

*" ^>

X

Fig. 200. Goldfishes at Eighteen Days (Reduced one-third)
The abdominal yolk-sacks have been absorbed, and the stomacns protrude in a way
to show that plenty of food has been provided.

213

Fig. 201. Goldfishes at Six Weeks (Reduced one-third)

At this period they have come to look, like fishes. From this point until late fall they

eat the equivalent of at least their own bulk daily, and the bodies in fancy stock will
continue to deepen and become more rounded.

Fig. 202. Telescope Goldfishes at Twelve Weeks (Reduced one-third)

They have now attained most of their body form and started to develop telescopic
eyes. In the scaleless varieties the colors have largely appeared, but among scaled stock
the young at this period remain "uncolored." At this time the best are selected as next
year's breeders, and given ample room by themselves.

214

L_

Fig. 203. Adult Japanese Telescope Goldfish

Fig. 204. Adult Japanese Fringetail Goldfish

215

Fig. 205. Adult Oranda Goldfish
This represents the final stage in the development of one type of goldfish, the Oranda,
because the hood on head as shown in this illustration only comes after several years
of age, such hoods as these not being produced under four to five years.

216

CHAPTER SIXTEEN

Wholesale Breeding of Goldfish

&*

(9

The principles of breeding and rearing goldfish are of course standard,
but their application in producing huge quantities for the popular market
is very different from the methods of the individual fancier who gives
studious and loving care to each of his pets.

It is therefore with some hesitation that we advise inquirers to
embark in goldfish farming, for, properly conducted, it is a real business
requiring special training and the application of sound business principles.
If one has these qualifications, a capacity for seasonal hard work, a well-
selected site, and lastly a faculty for prompt and clear correspondence,
there is no reason why a very fair living cannot be made in this industry.
At the present time there are about 20 to 25 million goldfish being pro-
duced annually in the United States by about 400 fish farmers. About
18 of the millions are reared by perhaps half a dozen large, well-con-
ducted farms. The balance are from dirt-farmers who merely stock a
few ponds, let the fish grow if they will and usually sell their product
to the larger producers because they themselves have no marketing
facilities nor talents. Whether the demand will increase is anybody's
guess. Many dyed-in-the-wool goldfish fanciers have been converted
to tropicals and the general public is becoming aware of them. It seems
unlikely that they will make any early inroads on the commercial gold-
fish, especially in the cheaper grades.

As we all take it for granted that we have good business judgment
and executive capacity, let us pass those considerations and concern our-
selves with the immediate, practical problems of those who are, or wish
to be, goldfish farmers. The cardinal points are climate, soil, water
supply, ground levels, shipping connections and room for expansion. We
shall take them up in order.

Climate. Most of the large, successful farms are in a climatic
region either near or equivalent to the "Mason and Dixon Line"— Mary-
land, Ohio, Indiana are the big producers, but distinct success is being
had in other states— northern New Jersey— even New York State and

218 WHOLESALE BREEDING

Ontario, and again as far south as Florida. What is needed is a climate
that is settled and balmy by May 15th and in which hard frost holds off
until November 1. Also where the days are not excessively hot nor the
nights cooler than say 60 degrees Fahrenheit in summer. It will there-
fore be seen that the actual climate of the spot is more to be considered
than geographical location. There are many places where one side of
a mountain range is satisfactory, yet on the other, only a few miles away,
conditions are not at all favorable.

Goldfish need a long season and moderate warmth for size develop-
ment. They also should have a winter rest period which is produced
by moderate cold. The reaction from this winter lethargy stimulates
them to strong breeding in the spring.

Soil. For economical construction and maintenance of large gold-
fish ponds there should be a soil capable of holding water with little loss
by seepage. A clay bottom is almost essential.

Some regions are unsuited because the soil is either too acid or too
alkaline. However, this point can best be considered under the next head-
ing, for the state of the soil in this respect is pretty sure to be shared
in by the quality of the

Water. For goldfish culture water should be nearly neutral or
slightly impregnated with lime. Limestone water produces fish with good
color and firm flesh that helps them withstand the hazards of shipping.
In the 1 testing sets now so generally in use the reading should be between
7. and 7.6. If not in possession of one of these sets, the test can be made
either by a private chemist or the agricultural department of the state. In
fact state and governmental departments are splendidly organized for
helping the fish farmer in most of his problems. They are always keen
and prompt to do everything possible. Correspondence with the Bureau
of Fisheries at Washington, D. C, receives personal and careful attention,
whether the farmer is working with goldfish or food-fish. So far as we
know, the same can be said of the Departments of Agriculture in the
different states. If the present chapter did no more than advise the
reader where this help may be had, it would have served a good purpose.

Spring water is usually satisfactory and has two great advantages.
It keeps warm enough over winter for the storage of surplus fish stock
and eliminates the troubles caused by wild fish getting into the goldfish
ponds where water is taken from streams. The difficulty about spring
water usually is that there is not enough of it ! A fish farm takes quite
a quantity of water, and one of the most important considerations is
that there be an unfailing, year-round supply. Water as it comes from
the spring, especially in a limestone country, is likely to be suited to
maintaining fish life, but too cool for putting growth on goldfish. There-

WHOLESALE BREEDING 219

fore in the rearing ponds it should be used simply for filling. In fact,
actively running water is not used in any of the rearing ponds. It is
let in by sluices, pumped in or flowed in from higher levels as needed.

From a practical standpoint the spring water section of a goldfish
farm, if present at all, is a small proportion of the whole. Water from
a good unpolluted stream must usually be depended upon for the main
supply.

Ground Levels . It is better for the source of water to come from
above, so as to flow into the various pools without the expense of pump-
ing. But another important matter is to have a stream bed or other
place of discharge below the entire pond system. This not only for
emptying the ponds, but for taking care of surface drainage during pro-
tracted heavy rains or cloudbursts. In fact this matter of taking care
of excess rain water is one of the most important to be worked out in
planning the general lay-out. Each piece of ground presents its own
problems, but usually ponds are maintained at a level about six inches
below the overflow point, to take care of emergencies. The screened
overflow itself usually discharges either into another pond or into a ditch
or trench leading to the final discharge point of the farm. In general
a fish farm should be located on a gentle slope with the water supply at
the top, and preferably on a tract which is not the concentration point
of a large water-shed above it.

Shipping. Good work on the fish farm can be undone in a few
hours by improper shipping. Of course we all know that the fish must
not ibe overcrowded in the cans. Ordinarily in a 15-gallon can there
should be placed no more than 150 common fish of three-inch size for
24-hour travel. Fewer for hot weather and fewer for fancy breeds. But
one of the main things is to get the cans moving as shortly after loading
as possible, and to keep them moving until delivery. The vibration of
travel (no doubt owing to splashing) oxygenates the water and so helps
the fish. For this reason, especially in summer, it has been found that
truck shipments are superior to rail transportation, because there is
more vibration on trucks, but also in rail shipment it is almost unavoid-
able that the cans stand still for a fairly long time (in rail transfers
and in stations prior to final delivery). These still periods are when
the suffocation occurs.

Formerly it was thought necessary for a fish farm to be near an
express office, but since the advent of the automobile it is more important
to secure low-priced ground and corresponding taxes rather than be a
short distance from the express company. And of express companies
it is only fair to say that they are appreciative of the problems of the
shipper of live fish and do all in their power to make good deliveries.

220 WHOLESALE BREEDING

They wish to avoid claims even more than the shipper cares to make
them.

Fish are better prepared for shipping by being kept for about two
weeks in cool water. Hard spring water is excellent for the purpose.
As before noted this seems to toughen the fish considerably. Care must
be taken in moving fish from warm rearing ponds to spring reservoirs
not to make the temperature change too suddenly. Floating the warm
containers in the cool water until temperature is nearly equalized before
emptying the fish is a good method.

The Plant. Experience has abundantly proven that goldfish
should be hatched and kept for the first few weeks in concrete tanks
where they can be watched, well fed and protected from most enemies.
It is equally certain that as soon as they are large enough to handle, say
about half an inch, they should be transferred to mud-bottom ponds,
where they grow much faster. This applies especially to commons.
Fancy varieties are usually reared in cement pools, where they can be
more carefully watched, and also removed with less risk of injury. Gold-
fish stir up the mud in the water and make the visibility bad, but on
the whole this is an advantage, for it partially hides them from enemies
and protects them from the full glare of all-day sun.

The size and style of concrete tanks varies with individual ideas.
Personally we prefer them raised. It makes observation better and work
easier. Six by twelve feet is a workable size for hatching-tanks and in
the latter part of the season they are useful for storing graded fish as
they are harvested from the mud-bottom ponds. Figure 207a shows such
tanks, while figure 208c, from another farm, shows them at ground level
and a size about twelve by twenty feet. Each is adapted to its own
breeding methods, which will be described later.

Mud-bottom ponds also vary in size. A fair average would be about
one-third acre. They are from two to three feet deep and are sloped to a
point (usually in one corner) to which the fish will be drawn for catch-
ing when the water is removed. Where spring water is not available for
Winter 1 storage of fish, a few ponds are dug extra deep so that ice will
not form to the bottom. Fancy brood stock, however, should be kept
indoors over winter in liberal sized tanks, at a temperature of about 60
degrees.

The edges of mud-bottom ponds should be concrete reinforced with
poultry netting. This retains the banks and keeps back vegetation.
Plants harbor small but vicious fish enemies. This reminds us to state
that it is not well to attempt to grow aquatic plants in goldfish ponds.
They are difficult to hold in check, interfere with catching the fish, and

WHOLESALE BREEDING 221

while reeds and cattails protect fish from birds of prey, they also harbor
their most active enemies— frogs, turtles and snakes.

Another method of holding back the vegetation is with boards held
by stakes — as in figure 207. At this farm the boards are placed only
on the breeding ponds, and for an entirely different reason from those
already described. We will come to it in a moment.

Breeding Methods. At no point is the difference more marked
between the small and the wholesale breeder than in methods of propaga-
tion. What is Best for an individual would, when multiplied by the
needs of the wholesaler, become a time-consuming burden. We refer
principally to the preparation of the spawning bed. The standard method
now in use by most establishments is pictured in figure 207a. It is a
frame 24 x 30 inches, 5 inches deep, with a 12-inch strip of poultry
netting attached the long way in the centre of the lower edge. This
allows a 6-inch opening on either side at the bottom. To this netting
is attached with string either thick sod with the earth washed out, or,
more recently, Spanish Moss which has had the outside covering re-
moved, and which is used mainly for cheap furniture or mattress stuffing.
Boards of trade in New Orleans, La., or Jacksonville, Fla., will give
names of dealers to those interested. The material is quite cheap and
is good for more than one season's use.

These frames are floated in the breeding ponds the evening before
spawning is expected. The fish swim up through the lower openings and
spawn on the material, which is from 2 to 3 inches thick. As the frames
become well filled with eggs, they are removed to the hatching tanks.
Single nail heads projecting from the centres of all four sides of the
frames prevent the surfaces from bumping together and destroying fry
which might be clinging there. After the fish are free-swimming, the
frames are of course removed from the hatching tanks and, after ex-
posure to the sun, used again or stored.

The object of the boarded edges in figure 207 is to keep the grass,
as well as rootlets, out of the water, so that the fish will spawn only in
the frames, and not on the grass, which would be their natural tendency.
Obviously, concrete edges also will serve the same end. In ponds where
fish are allowed to breed without supervision, grass edges are a help
unless there are present plenty of aquatic plants with finely divided
leaves.

In Japan and usually in Japanese hatcheries in America, willow
roots are used to catch spawn. It is thrown into the breeding ponds
in bunches and after being filled with eggs is placed in hatchery ponds
(the large ones in figure 208c) and held down about a foot from the
bottom by an arching piece of wire netting. Otherwise it is likely to

222 WHOLESALE BREEDING

float partially out of the water and dry some of the eggs. Willow roots
can be gathered, but they are usually imported in a dry state from Japan.

Feeding. Goldfish can rear themselves on the natural food they
will find in a pond and the insect life which falls into the water, but it
is a poor policy leaving them to their own resources in this matter.
They will grow much faster and be more valuable if fed liberally. The
young should have daphnia. Pools for supplying this food ought to be
prepared in the spring. Various methods are employed, most of them
based on the decomposition of organic matter. A mixture of manure
and leaves from a compost pile spread liberally on the bottom forms a
good basis for a culture. A mixture of two-thirds sheep manure and
one-third super phosphate (a fertilizer) has been found excellent. When
the water has stood in the prepared pond for about two weeks, a culture
of daphnia may be added. Multiplication will be very rapid. If the
pond has previously contained daphnia probably no fresh culture will
be needed, as the winter eggs withstand freezing and drying.

Finely divided yellow of hard boiled egg is a suitable first food when
the fry is from 3 to 10 days old. Then up to an inch they ought to have
as much daphnia as possible. After that they are fed heavily on mush
composed at first of oatmeal and later of an equal mixture of oatmeal,
cornmeal and "red dog," a low grade of wheat flour. In some hatcheries
Epsom salts are cooked in with the mush about once a week. Fish meal
and soy-bean meal are also ingredients occasionally added. In order to
secure the best results the mush should be thoroughly cooked and stirred
for approximately two hours. The most modern plants use pressure
boilers and automatic agitators. This shortens both time and labor.
Figure 208 shows such an equipment. We were fortunate to secure this
picture just before it was to be enclosed by a building that would have
made the photograph impossible. The mush is cooled 6 hours before use.

In large establishments the food has to be conveyed to the ponds
on small automobile trucks, so in laying out a plant, space enough for
a truck should be left in the main aisles between ponds.

Sorting. On account of the enormous difference in the rate of
growth in goldfish, sorting is very important for a number of reasons.
As stated elsewhere, the very large eat the very small. Grading for size
prevents this. Then they are graded for color. In commons the prin-
cipal standard is whether they have turned to gold. Sometimes they
will not turn the first year and must be sold cheaply or carried over.
In Fantails the sorting is more critical, and fins must be considered, as
well as size and color. Another advantage of sorting is that the best
fish can be given the best and most protected positions, and the best
food— occasional feedings of daphnia, for instance.

WH OLESALE BREEDING 223

Tables with oilcloth tops, ruled in inch squares, are a help in this
work. Commons are deposited on the table, and with the aid of the
squares it is possible for unskilled labor to grade for size. When fancy
fins are to be considered the fish must be in the water. Besides, fancy
fish are more likely to be injured by being dumped on a table. The
Japanese gentlemen in figure 208c are sorting fancy fish in the usual
way from pans. Sorting is not done once in a season, but several times.

Varieties to Breed. Experience seems to force the general con-
clusion that the common goldfish is the most paying breed for the begin-
ner or for those who have not a good equipment. Fantails, Telescopes
and Lionheads are easy victims to the enemies which abound everywhere,
while their degeneracy from apparently good stock is very discouraging.
Besides they are more difficult to transport. To say that fancy fish can-
not be profitably raised on a wholesale scale would be contrary to the
facts, but it is an undertaking only for those who are experienced and
who are prepared to give close and constant supervision, and have ample
and expensive equipments. Comets, while able to swim rapidly and look
out for themselves, are apt to be slow in turning color.

Selecting Breeders. In commons the point of importance is early
turning. Each season those which first turn red should be set aside, and
from the strongest of these select the breeders for next year. Fantail
brood fish should always have fully divided tails. Those with joined
tails are already reverting to the original type. Also select deep colors.
The tendency for colors, especially in the transparent specimens, is to
turn lighter. These are less salable.

In this connection we draw attention to the Japanese screens in
figure 208c. Calico fish are stored here in the fall after sorting and while
waiting to be shipped. The muddy pond water protected their colors,
but when in concrete tanks the delicate blue colors need protection from
fierce sun rays. The screens accomplish this very well, and also keep
out fishing birds.

Diseases, Parasites, etc. The goldfish farmer has to contend with
more fish ailments than does the small breeder. Natural conditions favor
more parasites and enemies, while life under the ice for several months
leaves the fish weakened and susceptible, so that mortality in the early
spring is very high at some farms.

The treatment of disease is another of the points which is outstand-
ingly different on the farm from the conservatory. Quantity and speed
must be ever remembered on the farm.

Instead of the mild salt water treatment for fungus which we else-
where recommend, and which we believe to be the best, goldfish farmers
usually gather a net of fish and dip them for about half a minute in a

224 WHOLESALE BREEDING

fairly strong brine; about a pound of rock salt to 10 gallons of water.
"Strong enough to float an egg" is the usual standard.

Fungus, while the most prevalent disease among parlor goldfish, is
not the chief offender on the farm. Here the culprit is an animal para-
site called

Gyrodactylus. We describe this elsewhere under the heading of
"Flukes," which is due to a species which gets in the gills. The kind
we now have in mind lives on the body and fins. The fish becomes
emaciated and soon dies. The mortality from this parasite in the early
spring is sometimes extremely heavy. Salt solution will not rid the
fish of this enemy. A dip of 60 seconds into a solution made of 1 part
of glacial acetic acid to 500 parts of water rids the fish of most of these
parasites, but the treatment should be repeated a week later.

A pound of permanganate of potash to 30,000 gallons of water has
been found effective in killing Gyrodactylus elegans, and other external
flukes. Fish need not be removed from pond, but if there is no vegeta-
tion, it might be well to reduce the strength slightly. The formula worked
out by Dr. Walter N. Hess for use in a tank without vegetation is a
two-hour treatment in a solution of 1 part of permanganate to 270,000
parts of water. This is approximately 1 pound of the crystals to 33,000
gallons of water, and is very efficient.

Ichthyophthirius. Personally we have never found salt to be
effective against this parasite, but we are reliably informed that 200
pounds of rock salt in a pond 30 x 40 x l^feet cures ichthyophthirius
in a week. We have seen such wonderful results in aquaria with the use
of mercurochrome, 4 drops of 2 % solution to each gallon of water, that we
feel strongly like recommending it. At this writing apparently no fish
farmer has tried it on that basis. In bulk treatment this figures about
1 ounce of 2% mercurochrome to 1000 gallons of water. The fish may
remain in this solution indefinitely.

Sunfish. This is not a disease, but an affliction, nevertheless.
Accidentally admitted into the rearing ponds through defective screens
or other source, they consume quantities of young goldfish, and what is
worse, pick the eyes out of developed Telescope goldfish.

With regard to the many enterprising and efficient enemies of the
goldfish, it seems to be the universal opinion among fish farmers that
it is cheaper to accept the enormous losses they entail rather than use
screened ponds, which would need to be smaller, require more labor
and heavier cash outlay. The writer is not convinced that this con-
clusion would stand up under a careful test, especially in handling the
fancy varieties, which are both more vulnerable and more valuable.

Fig. 206. Rearing Ponds for Fancy Goldfisb
Sloping sides and the bottom are covered with concrete 3 to 4 inches thick, which
should be reinforced with heavy poultry netting (for freezing climates).

Fig. 206a. Live Boxes
These are for storage of common goldfish prior to shipping. Cool limestone
water, it available, is best for the purpose. Attendant is dipping out a netful of fish.

225

Fig. 207. Breeding Ponds With Boarded Edges
Also showing one of the world's best-known and cheapest grass cutters— a useful
adjunct on a farm with acres of ponds. Some fish farms utilize sheep.

Fig. 207a. Egg Nests
They have just been removed from upper pond and are being placed in raised
concrete hatchery tanks. Eggs are deposited on the grassy mat, which is supported
by poultry netting. Fish enter through open side spaces in the bottom.

226

Fig. 208. Kitchen ox a Modern Goldfish Farm

Horizontal boiler cooks about 2000 pounds of mush per day, and, what is more
remarkable, the hsh eat all of it ! The mush is stirred by revolving spirals inside the
boiler. They also serve to force the contents to the lower end, where the men are
filling cans with the food. Vertical boiler runs engine and supplies live steam to coils
in cooker.

Fig. 208a. Pantry on a Large Fancy Goldfish Farm
Here the food is cooled about six hours before feeding. By an accident of
photography the head of a gigantic fish seems to be begging honorable Japanese boy
for dinner.

227

Fig. 208b. Sorting Common Goldfish

This is a specially designed table covered with oilcloth ruled in inch squares. The
edges slope upward and at each corner is an opening somewhat like on a pocket billiard
table, through which the fish of different sizes or colors are dropped into hanging buckets.
The fish are not injured by a few minutes' exposure to air.

Fig. 20Sc. Japanese Grading Fancy Goldfish
Fancy breeds are sorted in water partly because development can be better seen,
and partly to avoid injury of delicate fins on a table top. These substantially built
ground-level ponds are used in the spring for hatching and in the fall for storing after
grading. The Japanese screen is sometimes rolled out to protect the fish from birds
of prey, as well as from too much sun. Standard shipping cans in the distance.

228

WH OLESALE B REEDING 229

Included in the equipment of most goldfish farms are a few trusty
shotguns to give a fitting welcome to the several birds that take fish
without paying for them. These birds are named in the chapter on
"Enemies."

In Conclusion. This chapter is more likely to be read by those
contemplating a goldfish farm than those possessing one. To such we
would say, start in a small way. All enterprises seem to be better built
from a little start. But keep a weather eye open for expansion and
select only a site possessing real possibilities. To those already estab-
lished in a growing business of this sort we suggest an exchange of
visits with fellow fish farmers. They are a good sort, willing to trade
the benefits of experience. Most of them believe that "Co-operation,
not competition, is the life of trade."

COMMERCIAL BREEDING OF TROPICALS

There is a rapidly growing demand for tropical fishes, and the pur-
chasing public is always glad to learn of sources where a good selection
of healthy stock may be had. From a business standpoint it would
therefore seem that the rearing of tropical fishes offers favorable oppor-
tunities, especially to those who wish to start in a small way, and who
are in a position to give close attention to the enterprise. The principal
adverse possibility is one which overtakes many a new business— too
many persons getting the same idea at the same time and causing over-
production. At the time this is written (nearly 1932) there has been a
recent great increase in breeders, but as yet no one knows the potential
purchasing power of the public. Interest in the subject is on the rise,
and of the many who are starting with tropicals, few give them up.

Many are taking advantage of the climate of the Gulf States for
rearing tropicals, where the use of buildings and artificial heat is reduced
to a minimum. Northern breeders, however, enjoy closer touch with
their markets.

A continuous warm temperature is imperative for some species and
for these it is not worth while attempting to breed outdoors in a temperate
climate.

In selecting a stock from which to breed for commercial purposes
it is inadvisable to choose the kinds which have already become com-
mon, even though they are easy to breed. It is much better to pay more for
something out of the ordinary if there seems to be a reasonable chance of
breeding it. The "fashions" change so rapidly in tropical fishes that we
could not attempt here to advise what to breed, as our suggestions might
be antiquated in a few months.

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

Tropical Fishes and Aquaria

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General Conditions. Where one has limited space and wishes for a
variety of fishes, it will be found that many of the tropical varieties now
available will do admirably. Most of them stand close quarters, thriving
in aquaria which are not much more than quart jars. Some of the fishes
are of such belligerent disposition that they must be kept alone, and in
these cases it is well that they will live in cramped quarters. Larger
aquaria with divisions for separating the different species are a con-
venience, especially if artificial heating has to be resorted to.

The question of space economy, however, is not the chief point in
favor of tropical fishes. It is the endless variety of habit, structure and
coloring, which gives us new avenues for personal study and observation.
Some idea of the variation in breeding habits alone is continued on pages
237 to 243.

Water. Many tropical fishes are very sensitive to the bad effects
of new water, even though it be of the proper temperature. It is well to
keep some of the old water to mix with the new when the aquarium must
be cleaned.

Feeding. The majority of tropical fishes are not heavy feeders like
the goldfish, and there is not great danger of overfeeding. Care should,
of course, be taken to leave no unconsumed food in the water. When
they are warm and comfortable they may be fed twice daily, although
this is not essential. Foods are described in Chapter Three.

Heating. The majority of tropical species thrive in temperatures
ranging from 65 to 85 degrees F. Nearly all will do well at 72 degrees.
For short periods they will stand temperatures below that at which they
will thrive, and it is very probable that after a few generations in our
climate they become accustomed to cooler water. When fishes are new
and rare it is emphatically a mistake to experiment on seeing how low a
temperature they will stand. That should be left for a later period after
breeding has been accomplished and a stock secured. Tight-fitting glass

TROPICAL FISHES AND AQUARIA

231

covers should be provided for all tropical aquaria. This helps keep the
temperature up and prevents the fish from leaping out, at which many
of them are extremely expert. Failure to replace covers has caused the
loss of many prized specimens. They will not suffocate if glass is down
close.

If one is not blessed with a heated greenhouse or a room of warm,
even temperature, artificial heating becomes necessary. There are several

Bad Principle

Fig. 209

Fig. 210

Fig. 211

Fig. 212

Fig. 213
Types of Heating Methods

Fig. 214

devices which accomplish this purpose, but only a few are satisfactory.
In general those are to be avoided which concentrate the heat on a small
portion of the aquarium water. This action drives out oxygen and other

232 TROPICAL FISHES AND AQUARI A

life-giving qualities and also produces uneven temperature for the fish to
pass through. Such an objectionable arrangement is shown in Fig. 209.
Aquarium water is directly heated in the small outside reservoir and cir-
culated back again. With this device the water intake may easily become
clogged, which soon causes the water to boil. This heating method is
used, but it is bad in theory and in practice. A better arrangement is
shown in Figs. 210 and 212, which is a complete hot water system not using
the aquarium water. The tubing is of copper, j4-inch inside diameter,
and of thin walls. Before bending any such work to shape it should be
packed quite hard with dry sand and the ends corked up. This prevents
buckling at the sharp curves. At the very top of the loop rising from
the heating coil should be bored a ^4 -inch hole and a small funnel soldered
around this. All hot water systems create some vapor. If this were
allowed to collect in the pipe there could be no circulation and boiling
would soon take place. The two open ends need not be soldered together.
They can be satisfactorily joined by rubber tubing, but this should be ar-
ranged to occur in the rising side of pipe in the water. In Fig. 210 the
arrangement can be hooked over the edge of any aquarium and has the ad-
vantage that the aquarium does not have to be elevated to heat from
underneath. The first filling of the system is not always easy. Water is
poured in the funnel until it will take no more. Then the hand is placed
over the funnel and the pipe turned upside down. Turn upright again
and put in more water. Hold at different angles. When it will take no
more water, try heat under the coil. If the water in funnel moves up and
down, there is still air in the tube. Sometimes it can be removed by ac-
tively filling and discharging a fountain pen filler in the opening. When
the water remains still in funnel when heated, it is all right to use. The
funnel must always contain water, or boiling will soon occur. If a filled
bottle with small neck is inverted, stood in funnel and secured in some
manner, it will last a long time without refilling. The copper tubing
should be nickeled after bending, as copper is fatal in the aquarium.

Fig. 211 shows a modification of the same idea with the pipe carried
through aquarium base. The little hollow hook at top of the hot water
system was devised by the writer to avoid the necessity of filling the
funnel, and to have the heater more concealed. The tubes within the
water are of glass, connected, by rubber, the end hook also being a
separate piece. By removing hook the system is easily filled. When heat
is on, vapor collects in top of curve, and when enough has collected to
force a bubble out, a drop of water is automatically sucked back to take
its place. The air space in hook also prevents any circulation between
hot water system and aquarium water proper. This system also gives
a higher percentage of heating efficiency than the outside form.

TROPICAL FISHES AND AQUARIA

233

For the highest efficiency and greatest all-round satisfaction, refer to
Fig. 214. This is a 4-inch agate pan set in the cement base described on
page 107. When making the aquarium it is little extra labor to set this in.
For aquaria already constructed it is somewhat of an undertaking to cut
a sufficiently large hole, but it can be done and the pan cemented on top.
Fig. 213 shows a simple and fairly effective expedient. After hole is cut in
slate, pour in lead or tin. When the metal is poured, use a form made of
putty to make a circular dam so that the surface of metal will come as
high as the sand. The object in using the inverted pan is to have the
heating surface come just above the sand. Then the heat is the most
efficient as well as fairly diffused and does not interfere with the roots
of plants. The objections to this type are that the aquarium has to
be raised and that there is an occasional drip of condensed water caused
by combustion. The best flame to use is a small gas Bunsen burner. They
may be had of some scientific apparatus concerns or dealers in German
aquarium supplies. No more than the tip of flame should be allowed to
touch the heating surface. Even this is not necessary in system shown
in Fig. 214. Smells are caused by having the flame strike directly against
a cool surface, which interferes with complete combustion.

Heat Control. In a room where there are wide changes of tempera-
ture, particularly when these dip to the cold side, it is desirable to have
some means of heat control. To start in the very
simplest way first, an aquarium may be kept noticeably
warmer over night by covering with a thick blanket,
quilt or any warm fabric. If near a window the curtain
should be pulled completely down. Another help for
any aquarium near a window is to have a sheet of glass
standing nearly vertical on the aquarium base and lean-
ing against the top. This sheds much of the cold
air which constantly falls from a window in cold
weather and rapidly chills the water.

Tropical aquaria, if not too small, may be kept at
a satisfactory temperature while standing on a board on
the radiator of a hot-water system, the heating result
not being so extreme as might be expected.

An occasionally used means of controlling tem-
perature is to heat by gas and use a thermostat to regu-
late gas flow. See Fig. 215. This is placed either in the
water or tightly against the outside of the aquarium, and
insulated from the influence of surrounding air by plenty of wool or cotton
batting. It contains a large body of mercury over which the gas passes
through a small space. As the water rises in temperature, the mercury

Fig. 215
Gas Thermostat

234 TROPIC AL FISHES AND AQUARIA

expands and so reduces this passageway, and vice versa. It is a very
ingenious and effective device and may be obtained from makers of
scientific glassware at small cost. Those selling them are glad to give
complete instructions regarding regulation, etc.

The modern method of heating individual aquaria is by use of
specially designed electrical units placed in the water and controlled
by a thermostat. Several of these are advertised in the aquarium maga-
zines. We suggest the avoidance of any design in this or other apparatus
which brings aluminum into contact with water for lengthy periods.
It is not very poisonous, but it disintegrates.

Electric light bulbs in the water are good heating units. Submarine
sockets are made for immersing the whole light, or the ordinary socket
may be used by immersing only about two-thirds of the bulb. The latter
is one of the best ways of applying extra heat in an emergency, or for the
heat treatment for certain fish diseases. The amount of heat can be regu-
lated by the depth to which the bulb is submerged.

Shipping Tropical Fishes. It is doubtful policy taking risk of ship-
ping tropical fishes when the weather is not settled and warm. They may
keep warm during the train travel, only to receive a fatal chilling in
delivery. To guard against this some shippers have designed special
boxes equipped with an extra outside shell, the intervening space being
filled with insulating substance, Celotex board being excellent for this
purpose. A simple expedient consists of a tin can (with a tight lid) or
glass jar set in a wooden box, then completely enclosed with ground cork,
sawdust, papers or other substance, and the lid fastened down. The top
of the box should be boldly marked, stating contents. A handle on the
top will help keep the top side up. Some dealers guarantee safe delivery.

Large Thermos cans, properly protected, have been successfully used
in shipping tropicals long distances.

The best method of transporting tropicals, where it does not interfere
with interstate laws, is to get in touch with a Pullman porter and have him
carry them through in jars, packed in a grip. Ventilation is unnecessary.

Aeration in Tropical Aquaria. Although plants have the same
beneficial effect on the water of tropical aquaria as those containing
goldfishes, many aquarists interested only in tropicals have little or no
vegetation in their tanks. This is particularly the case with dealers,
who must be able to catch fishes quickly and to keep close count of
stock. Under such circumstances, and with the frequently added neces-
sity for overcrowding, mechanical aeration, practically doubling the fish
capacity of an aquarium, is a big advantage. Low-priced midget elec-
tric air pumps, combined with special liberators, deliver the air in small
bubbles at the bottom of the water, both oxygenating it and setting up
a beneficial circulation.

m

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

Tropical Fish Exhibitions

rc^9^

We believe that the remarkable growth of the tropical fish fancy is
due in large measure to the enterprise of those who have organized and
carried through public exhibitions of tropical aquaria. It is there many
persons first learn that there are, besides the goldfish, literally hundreds
of beautiful fishes which have been domesticated ; that they will prosper
in small aquaria, and that in form, coloring and habits they possess
endless variety.

It is true that most tropicals, on account of fright and change of
temperature, lose much of their color at exhibitions, and that owners
are liable to lose some of their stock, due to chill. Happily there are
always enthusiasts ready to take a risk in order to kindle a spark of
interest in a study in which they themselves have found so much pleasure.

Exhibitions spread knowledge and ought to be encouraged, but to
be of the most use they should be advertised. Newspapers are glad to
give write-ups and even large "spreads," but it should be the duty of
someone to give the reporters correct information about the fishes and
try to hold in check their propensity for spectacular distortion. The first
large exhibits of tropicals in this country were held through the joint
co-operation of aquarium societies and large department stores. The
shows were put up by the societies, but held in the stores and advertised
by them. Attendance was always large, to the gratification of all con-
cerned. While this plan is still in effect, it is largely superseded by exhi-
bitions of a non-commercial character, held in halls, museums, large
public buildings, amusement parks and public aquaria, most of the latter
now having permanent exhibits of freshwater tropical fishes. We mention
these things to encourage even small groups to "start something" and
attract kindred spirits to themselves. There is benefit in numbers.

Competitive Exhibitions. Aquarium societies (along with the rest
of the world) find that competition sharpens endeavor. At the regular
meetings of societies, as well as at larger public shows, awards are usually
made. For the benefit of those who would like to put such a program

236 TROPICAL FISH EXHIBITIONS

into effect, but who have no experience, we mention a few of the practices
and rules which are successfully in operation.

Pairs receive consideration above a single fish, even though that
fish is of superior quality.

Pairs should be matched in size according to their natural propor-
tions towards each other. That is, for instance, if "Guppyis" were being
shown, the female should be considerably larger than the male, and not
the reverse.

Single fishes are eligible to compete against other singles if no pairs
of the same variety are present.

The main points considered are condition, size and color.

Rarity is sometimes given separate consideration.

One competent judge is found to be more satisfactory than a com-
mittee of several.

It is the usual custom at society meetings to give separate evenings
to exhibitions of different groups of fishes, such, for instance, as live-
bearers one night, and the following groups separately on other nights:
Labyrinth or air-breathing fishes, Cypronoids, Characins, novelties and
native aquarium fishes.

In addition to awards for the best and second-best in each class,
it is usual to have a prize or award for the best pair in the show, any
variety. In large public exhibits it is also usual to offer awards for the
greatest number of varieties, for the rarest pair and for the best arranged
exhibit.

Owners must declare the classification of fishes offered for exhibit.

One prominent society offers, at the end of the season, a prize to
the member who has taken the greatest number of awards.

Fig. 215a. Hyphessobrycon rosaceus Durbin

or Rosy Tetra

Such a large spot of black in the dorsal fin is unique among aquarium fishes. Therefore
this individual makes an interesting contrast with others in a tank of mixed species, or
"happy family aquarium," as such a collection is usually called.

The Rosy Barb belongs to the Characin family, and, in common with its relatives,
drops adhesive eggs. Although well adapted to aquarium life, and usually in the besl
of health, the species seldom spawn.-. Nearly all of our stock is dependent upon fresh
importations from native waters in British Guiana and Brazil.

23 6a

CHAPTER NINETEEN

DESCRIPTIVE KEY

to the BREEDING and Other Habits
of Nearly All Fishes Mentioned in this Volume

6*3S&*g%&

€■':

AMBASSID^E— AMBASSIDS (No. 1)
Ambassis ranga makes a nest and guards its young. The little ones
swim around in a school. The fish is carnivorous. It is found in fresh
and brackish waters in India.

ANABANTID.S^-GOURAMIES AND CLIMBING PERCHES

(No. 2)

The Labyrinth fishes are found in tropical Asia and Africa. All
have a chamber above the gills in which they store atmospheric air for
breathing.

Anabas is said to breed similarly to Channa of the Ophicephalidae.
The African Ctenopoma has rarely, if ever, been bred in captivity. The
Asiatic Gouramies all breed similarly. The male makes a floating nest
of tiny mucous-covered air bubbles, preferably under the leaf of a floating
plant. At spawning he places the eggs in the nest and chases away the
female, who should be removed. He then assumes guard beneath his
dome-nest of froth, driving away intruders and picking up falling eggs
and young. The eggs require high temperature (80° to 90° F.) and
hatch in from 20 to 48 hours. The young are kept in the nest a day
or two by the male, until they are able to swim. Then he must be
removed to prevent cannibalism. No success can be had without a good
supply of Infusoria until the young are about a month old, as they are
too tiny to take the smallest daphnia.

The young require a constant temperature of 80° or above.

Labyrinth fishes are rather quarrelsome as a rule (except Dwarf
Gouramies) and must be kept with their own species, preferably in num-
bers to prevent individual duels-to-the-death. Betta, the Siamese Fight-
ing-fish, can be kept with other fishes as it fights only its own kind.
All the family are carnivorous, but will take prepared fishfoods con-
taining a good percentage of animal matter, which is true of most car-
nivorous fishes.

CALLICHTHYID^— ARMORED CATFISHES (No. 3)

The Cascaduras or Armored Catfishes are all South American. Very
little is known of the breeding. The species of Corydoras are especially
valuable in the aquarium as scavengers. They are very quaint.

238 DESCRIPTIVE KEY TO BREEDING, ETC.

CENTRARCHID^— SUNFISHES (No. 4)
The Sunfishes are peculiar to North America. They are, as a rule,
rather pugnacious, and cannot be kept with other fishes. Mesogonistius
and Enneacanthus are exceptions to this. The species are, of course, not
"tropicals" and this should be kept in mind when they are placed in
aquaria.

Practically all the species excavate a shallow depression in the
sand, where the eggs are deposited and guarded by the male.

Mesogonistius breeds among grasses, such as V allisneria, depending
more upon hiding its young than fighting for them.

CHARACID.&— CHARACINS (No. 5)

The Characins are somewhat less peaceful than the carps, and nearly
all of them have the jaws armed with sharp teeth. The smaller species,
such as Hyphessobrycon and Hemigr animus, scarcely ever bother other
fishes of their own size, but the larger ones (Astyanax, etc.) had best be
kept to themselves.

Most of the species breed very similarly to the Barb group of the
Carps and should be treated likewise. Some of the species of Copeina
(arnoldi, callolepis), however, lay their eggs out of water, and the males
guard them and splash water over them at intervals. Special arrange-
ments should be made for this, such as smooth rockwork near the water,
or ground glass sides or top to the aquarium.

Thoracocharax, Carnegiella, and Gasteropelecus, skim over the sur-
face of the water of their haunts, similarly to Pantodon.

CICHLIDiE— CICHLIDS (No. 6)

The Mojarras or Cichlids are mostly savage fishes and cannot be
kept with others, even their own mates, unless large numbers of the
same size are present. Pteropkyllum is an exception. Most Cichlids
tear out and destroy rooted plants, although Mquidens portalegrensis will
not.

Some breeders first separate the proposed pair by a glass partition
until they seem to display friendly intentions towards each other, then
letting them together. If there is not an open combat they may pres-
ently interlock mouths in what seems to be either a tug-of-war or a
protracted kiss. After the action is repeated several times it will end
either in a happy marriage or murder, unless human interference steps
in. It is preferable to try to mate fishes of the same size, otherwise the
smaller is likely to lose heart and make a retreat. Males and females
seem to be equally "temperamental," which is a polite way of describ-
ing a nasty disposition. In justice to them it should be said that in a
large pool no such fatalities occur. The fishes deposit adhesive eggs

DESCRIPTIVE KEY TO BREEDING, ETC. 239

on stones, or on the aquarium, on the convex side of a flowerpot laid
on its side, or on porcelain. Eggs hatch in from 3 to 6 days, during
which period the parents take turns in swimming over the eggs and
fanning fresh water over them constantly. When the young hatch, the
parents carry them in their mouths and deposit them in a depression
previously made in the sand at the bottom, where they jealously guard
them against all comers — terrestrial or aquatic — frequently removing
dirt from the "nest" and transferring the baby fish to new nests. For
several days after hatching the young eat nothing, but live in a swarm
at the bottom, while they absorb the yolk-sac. At the end of this period
they begin to "look like fish" and to swim around their parents in a
"cloud." They then require first infusoria and later very fine daphnia.
The parents may be removed any time after the young begin to swim.
They require much room and clean pure water of a constant tempera-
ture of 78 or over. The dirt should be siphoned off the bottom occasion-
ally and fresh water of the same temperature added.

Artificial incubation of the eggs of this group of fishes is secured
by the use of compressed air liberated in the water in such position and
volume as to produce a gentle circulation. Water must be clear. Parents
and eggs are, of course, separated. This method is very successful and
is used by wholesale breeders. Removal of eggs into clear water of same
temperature has proven effective, even without circulation.

We have recently observed that fishes of this general type have a
decided preference for spawning on a light-colored object, such as a
piece of marble or other light stone. We have not tried white porcelain
or crockery, but they should be successful, we believe.

No. 6 A

Pterophyllum scalare varies from the foregoing in that at no period
do the parents place the young in depressions in the sand. They have
a pronounced preference for depositing eggs on broad, firm leaves, like
giant Sagittaria. These fishes in captivity are very apt to eat their eggs,
and the chances of successful propagation are greater if the parents or eggs
are removed as soon as egg-eating is observed. Eggs should be in a clear,
clean aquarium. Artificial circulation of water is desirable but not in-
dispensable.

Haplochromis multicolor and Tilapia macrocephala are also Cichlids,
but their breeding habits are quite different. They are mouthbreeders.
After the eggs are dropped and fertilized, one of the parents places the
eggs in the mouth and keeps them there until hatched, and for about
two weeks more. With H. multicolor it is the female who assumes this
arduous task, while with T. macrocephala it is the male. Further infor-
mation on these species will be found under their illustrations.

240 DESCRIPTIVE KEY TO BREEDING, ETC.

COBITIDiE— LOACHES (No. 7)

The family of Loaches is a large one, and its members are found
over Europe, Asia, the East Indies, and Northeast Africa. They are
close to the Carp family, though their barbels make them externally
similar to the Catfishes. The eggs of Misgurnus are deposited on the
sides and plants of the aquarium, remaining there until hatched in a few
days. The young swim in a school around the old fishes.

The Loaches are valuable as scavengers. They are entirely harmless
to other fishes. (See figure 11.)

CYPRINID^— CARPS (No. 8)

The Carps in general are of peaceful disposition. They seldom
fight and when they do they cannot hurt each other, for they have no
teeth in the jaws. The pharyngeal teeth in the throat are used for
chewing their food, which consists in most cases, contrary to common
belief, almost entirely of animal matter such as worms and insects.
Certain species, such as the Carp itself, are to a large extent herbivorous.

Goldfishes belong to this family, but their habits are covered else-
where.

Of the species considered, only the Brachydanios are known to have
non-adhesive eggs. These are bred by placing the ripe adults together
in a fair sized aquarium, the bottom of which is covered with large pebbles
or small marbles. The eggs are dropped between the pebbles and are
there safe from the appetite of the parents until the latter can be removed.
(See also figure 104.) D. malabaricus has adhesive eggs.

The Barbs, and most Carps, drop adhesive eggs upon water plants.
(See page 200.) The aquarium should be provided with a mat of
Myriophyllum, Nitella or other bushy plant, over the bottom, weighted
down with a few pebbles. The eggs are deposited on this mat and the
parents must then be removed.

Rasbora heteramorpha places eggs on the under side of leaves such
as Cryptocoryne, paying no further attention to them, nor to the young.

Many American brook minnows build "nests" of little stones but
such species cannot, in general, be bred in aquaria.

Bitterlings by means of an ovipositor place their eggs within the shell
of a live freshwater mussel. The young duly emerge from this protective
refuge.

GASTEROSTEID^— STICKLEBACKS (No. 9)

The Sticklebacks cannot be kept with other fishes. They are carniv-
orous and build an actual nest out of bits of plants. For more detailed
description, see page 168.

GOBIIDiE— GOBIES (No. 10)

This large family is sparsely represented in our aquaria. The species
are carnivorous and little is known of their breeding.

DESCRIPTIVE KEY TO BREEDING, ETC. 241

GYMNOTID^— GYMNOTID EELS (No. n)
Little is known of the habits of this South American group. They
have never been bred in aquaria.

HEMIRAMPHIDiE— HALFBEAKS (No. 12)
Members of this family are common in most seas. A few tropical
ones are fresh-water. Dermogenys is one of these. It is live-bearing and
should be treated like the live-bearing Killifishes.

LORICARIID^— SPINY ARMORED CATFISHES (No. 13)

The family of Spiny Armored Catfishes is confined to South America.
Practically nothing is known of the breeding.

NANDID^— NANDIDS (No. 14)
A small Indian family. Nandus has never been bred in this country.
Badis should be provided with a small flowerpot turned on its side near
the middle of the aquarium. The eggs are placed on the upper inside
of the flowerpot and are guarded by the male. The female should be
carefully removed. As soon as the young are able to swim the male
may be removed. The Nandids are carnivorous but not very savage.

OPHICEPHALID^— SNAKEHEADS (No. 15)

This Asiatic and African family is largely carnivorous, feeding parti-
cularly on other fishes. They may be fed small chunks of meat in the
aquarium. Channa asiatica and some Ophicephalus deposit their eggs
loosely, floating on the surface. Some care is usually taken of the eggs
but it is considered best to remove the adults. Certain species of Ophi-
cephalus are said to build "nests," like the Sunfishes.

The Snakeheads are "Labyrinth Fishes" like Anabantidae, breathing
atmospheric air, for which they must rise to the surface every few
moments.

PANTODONTID^E— BUTTERFLY FISH (No. 16)
This peculiar family contains but a single species, from W. Africa.
It is one of the few fresh-water flying fishes. Examples have been seen
to dart quickly along the surface and, when sufficient momentum is
gained, leave the water and skim over the surface, supported by the large
pectoral fins. They, of course, cannot steer themselves in the air and
drop back into the water when the momentum is spent.

The eggs are deposited loosely and float on the surface similarly
to Channa and Ophicephalus.

PERCIDiE— PERCHES (No. 17)
The Yellow Perch, Perca is too large a fish to be bred in small
aquaria. The eggs are laid in bands on a sandy or pebbly bottom. The
Darters, accustomed to swift, cold water (except Copelandellus and

242 DESCRIPTIVE KEY TO BREEDING, ETC.

Boleichthys) are hard to induce to spawn in an aquarium. The eggs are
deposited among the stones of the bottom. The parents should be re-
moved. All the Perch family are carnivorous.

POECILIIDiE— KILLIFISHES (No. 18)

This large family is almost cosmopolitan. The aquarist, for con-
venience, divides the family into two sections ; one, in which the ova are
hatched within the female's body and the young born alive, and the
other in which the ova are deposited to hatch externally. The first or
viviparous group (all of which species are marked with a V. after the
family name in the list) is separated into five sub-families: the Anable-
pinae, in which the anal fin of the male is modified into a long tubular
copulatory organ; the Jenynsiinae, in which the male's anal fin is es-
sentially the same; the Poeciliinae, in which the male's fin is trough-
shaped rather than tubular; the Characodontinae, in which the entire
anal of the male is not modified into a long organ, but the first few rays
are stiff and short and are separated from the rest of the fin by a notch,
and the Phallostethinae, in which the male's ventral fins are modified
into a singular process beneath the head. The egg-laying or oviparous
division is comprised of three subfamilies: the Cyprinodontinae, which
includes the Cyprinodons, etc., the Fundulinae which includes Fundulus,
Oryzias, etc., and the Adrianicthyinae found only in Celebes.

The viviparous species are easily bred. The gravid female should
be placed in a large jar with thick, bushy Nitella or Riccia on the light
side. The young, when born, seek the light, and are protected by the
plants from the cannibalistic parents. Excellent fish-traps are now
made, obviating the necessity of the above treatment. (Some of these
are shown on pages 122 and 123.)

In the egg-dropping group the breeding habits are more diverse. Of
the species herein enumerated the breeding is as follows : For practical
purposes A. sophiae, J. jloridae, all the Funduli except F. caeruleum,
the Panchaces, and Rivulus may be under one head. The pair should be
kept separated for a week or two and fed on nourishing food. Then
place them together in a warm, sunny tank with thick floating Utricul-
aria or Riccia. Spawning should soon commence. Leave the pair to-
gether a day, separate, and repeat, removing the egg-filled plants to a
hatching jar and replacing with new. Feed young on small daphnia.

In Oryzias, crystal-clear eggs are expelled and fertilized and hang
in a tiny cluster from the female's vent. In moving about, the eggs are
brushed off and adhere by a fine filament to the plants. The hatching
and care are the same as for Panckax, etc.

Except Belenesox and Gambusia aff., the Killifishes are peaceable
citizens.

DESCRIPTI VE KEY TO BREEDING, ETC. 243

POLYCENTRID.E— POLYCENTRIDS (No. 19)

A small family of three species. Polycentrus breeds similarly to
Badis (see under Nandidae). Polycentropsis is said to build a bubble
nest similar to that of the Labyrinth fishes. It has been bred but few
times.

SCATOPHAGIDiE— ARGUS FISH (No. 20)
The Argus Fish is an inhabitant of brackish water in India. It
has never been bred in this country.

SILURID.aE— CATFISHES (No. 21)

This group is now split up into several families, but it is left intact
here. Few of the species have been bred in aquaria. All are omnivorous,
and good scavengers. They are mostly harmless, but should not be kept
with long-finned goldfish.

SOLEID.E— SOLES, FLATFISH (No. 22)

The soles inhabit brackish and entirely fresh water. They are car-
nivorous and their breeding has seldom, if ever, been attempted in
aquaria.

TETRAODONTIDiE— SWELL-FISHES (No. 23)

These queer fishes are clowns in the aquarium. Two Indian species
have been used in aquaria. They are carnivorous and the breeding is
not known.

GENERAL NOTES ON HABITS AND BREEDING

The nature and breeding habits of the fishes listed are given in
condensed form under the family headings, but a few remarks that are
generally applicable are here presented.

In attempting to keep more than one kind of fish or even different
individuals of the same species, it is always best to have all the fishes
the same size. Even if of peaceable disposition, large fishes are apt to
bully or eat little ones.

Young tropicals are in general treated much alike. The newly
born live-bearers can eat fine Daphnia or powdered fishfood at once
and they are very easy to raise. Even considerable variation in tem-
perature is withstood. With the egg-laying fishes however, there must
be a constant temperature, particularly in the Labyrinth fishes, Cichlids,
etc. For Labyrinths it should be as high as 85° or 90° while for all
tropicals it should be 5° to 10° higher than usual. This is needless in

244 DESCRIPTIVE KEY TO BREEDING, ETC.

the hot summer months. The young must have a constant supply of
infusoria, prepared beforehand by the methods described elsewhere in
this book, until they are large enough to eat very finely screened
Daphnia. Do not introduce the Daphnia while still feeding Infusoria.
Daphnia do not, as has been supposed, devour Infusoria, but in large
numbers they consume so much oxygen that the Infusoria die. Nearly
all fishes will eat their own eggs and young, even the ones showing great
parental care often forgetting and devouring their own offspring. Except
when absolutely necessary, parent fish should be kept away from their
young. Some fishes are like other animals in captivity, especially when
closely confined. They destroy their young when in fear of having them
fall into the hands of man. Liberal feeding tends to prevent cannibalism.

TEMPERATURE FOR TROPICAL FISHES

A good practical temperature for general use is 75 degrees Fahrenheit
or 24 degrees Celsius. Ichthyophthirius and other diseases will seldom
appear at this temperature. Most tropicals will do fairly well at 70
degrees, but here one is flirting with danger, because a drop of a few
degrees from this point is likely to cause trouble.

If, through some unavoidable circumstance, the water has been
chilled to the very dangerous point around 60 degrees, a special effort
should be made to gradually raise the temperature to 75 to 80 degrees
to anticipate and counteract any injurious effects.

Higher temperatures are required for breeding some of the fishes, as
is noted on the pages just preceding this.

Temperature for goldfishes is covered in the early part of the book,
and their requirements apply to most of our native aquarium fishes also.

THE "HAPPY FAMILY" AQUARIUM

In a small aquarium without many plants one must be careful to
select only the most amiable of fishes for mixing together. Nearly all
members of groups 3, 7, 8 and 18 are perfectly safe, except in the few in-
stances noted.

There is a world of difference in a large aquarium (25 gallons and
upward) which is thickly planted and having rock, flowerpot, pipe or
other refuges. Then we may also safely add members from groups 2, 5
and 19. The individual fishes comprising groups will be found in the
list on pages 286-297.

One of the main things to keep in mind is not to have too great a
difference in the sizes of members of the "happy family" aquarium.

A very attractive aquarium of mixed native temperate-water fishes
can be made up, comprised of those we have described in Chapter Twelve,
except for Sticklebacks and the more aggressive Sunfishes.

Fig. 210. Blue Gularis (Photographed direct in natural colors)
(Aphyosemion caeruleum)

We believe that, at least in America, this is the first Autochrome reproduction of an
.iquarium fish. The colors are shown with wonderful fidelity to life. Unfortunately tru
process is not suited to many fishes because the plates require an exposure of at least three
seconds, a length of time most of our fish friends will not remain still. There is no known
way of making the fish ''look at the birdie." Breeding habits, page 242 (No. IS).

245

■ ■ • ■ :

Fig. 217. Aphyosemion bivhtatum (Slightly Reduced)

One of the most graceful of the Killifishes, known as "top minnows." The general
color of this variety is reddish brown, flaked and dotted on body and fins with carmine.
As with many other fishes, the male has the higher coloring, and longer, more pointed
fins. Breeding habits, page 242 (No. IS).

Fig. 218. Fundulus chrysotus
Although this is one of our own most attractive tropicals from Southern United
States, we not infrequently import it from Europe. Breeding habits, page 242 (No. 18).

246

Fig. 219. Rivulus ocellatus (Male) [.Two-thirds size]
This is the best known and one of the most attractive of the genus
habits, page 242 (No. IS).

Breeding

Fig. 220. Rivulus tenuis (Male) [Life size]

Rivulus of different species have much the same habits. They are rather inactive,
but capable of leaping vigorously. Should not be kept with smaller fishes, hrom
Central and South America. Breeding habits, page 242 (Xo. 18).

Fig. 221 Rivulus rachovii [Male) [Life size]

The tail fin is quite black, which gives an interesting characteristic. Female is
lighter. Breeding habits, page 242 (No. IS).

247

Fig. 222. Rivulus harti (Male) [Life size]

The lines of dots are deep red, giving the fish a handsome appearance,
habits, page 242 (No. 18).

Breeding

^ >** *#V*-

Fig. 223. Chriopeops goodei (Formerly known as Fundulus goodei)
This beautiful fish has been brought from Florida at a comparatively recent date
The male is very beautiful in colors and is a desirable aquarium fish, but seems to do
better either in a large indoor tank or in an outdoor pool in summer. Breeding habits,
page 242 (No. 18).

248

Fig. 224. Jurdanella fioridoz (Life size)

One of our own particularly attractive native tropical fishes. The general color is a
warm, reddish brown. Breedine habits, page 242 (No. IS).

I

Fig. 225. Cynolebias belottii (Natural size)
The majority of imported aquarium nshes, especially the more handsome ones, come
from tropical climates and naturally require fairly warm water. Cynolebias belottii is
one of the exceptions, coming from Argentine. It prospers at a temperature of 6S degrees
or lower, and is beautifully marked, especially the male, which is distinguished by clear
white pearl-like dots. The prevailing color is blue. Breeding habits, same as egg-laying
Killifishes, page 242 (No. 18).

249

Fig. 226. Epiplatys chaperi (Slightly Reduced)
One of the best-known and easily bred of the tropical fishes. Not as large as some
of the other Haplochilus division, it is also less likely to be cannibalistic, while in beauty
it takes a high place. See page 242 (No. 18).

F

"^^

„ i 5J(WB«*g»»isv:--.

Fig. 227. Pachypanchax playfairii
Besides the attractive coloration of this fish (lines of deep red dots on shades ol
yellow) there is an interesting characteristic to the scales, which stand partly on end,
giving the appearance of the fish disease known as "dropsy," but which is normal to
the scales of the species. We have tried unsuccessfully to photograph the scales on
a dropsical fish, but this illustration conveys the idea perfectly. However, there is
nothing repellant about this fish. On the contrary, it is attractive.
a good breeder it is likely to remain one of our permanent friends,
fins edged black. Females have colorless fins and a black blotch at base of dorsal
From Zanzibar. Breeding habits, page 242 (No. 18).

Being hardy and
Males have yellow

250

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v.

Figs. 228 and 229. Panchax lineatus
Upper, male; lower, female (Life size)

Larger members of the Panchax family. While not attacking other aquarium
fishes for the pleasure of fighting, they are not to be trusted with smaller specimens,
which might be swallowed. They are inveterate leapers. Considered to be among the
handsomest of domesticated fishes. Breeding habits, page 242 (No. 18).

251

___ ■

Fig. 230. Panchax panchax (Slightly Reduced *

One of the regular aquarium favorites. The dark edging in the fins represents a
bright orange-red, while the body is suffused with a glowing mixture of warm colors
Males have dark outer edge on fins. Breeding habits, page 242 (No. 18).

Fig. 231. Aphyosemion australe (formerly known as Haplochilus cameronensis)

In direct sunlight, coming from behind the observer and striking fully on the fish,
he is indeed a sight to behold — a combination of harmonious blendings and striking con-
trasts. They die rather easily, especially if the water gets a little cool. The illustration is
of a maximum size not usually reached. Females have rounded tails and are not at all
brilliant. A callurium is so nearly similar that a photograph will not intelligibly
record the difference. Breeding habits, page 242 (No. 18).

252

Fig. 232. Mollienisia latipinna

This is one of the most attractive of the fishes from Southeastern United States and
Mexico. After many efforts we were fortunate enough to photograph the male in his-
courting regalia. The dorsal fin ordinarily is- not so highly raised but appears as in Fig
234. The female is of the same species but nearly black in color, a natural freak which
occurs once in several million specimens. Breeders have mated black specimens together
until now a fairly pure strain of blacks has been established. The young are born alive.
Breeding habits, page 242 (No. 18).

These are principally marine fishes but live fairly well in fresh water. The author
suspects they do best in a brackish water aquarium, and that if kept in fresh water they
should, every few months, be given the progressive salt treatment described on page 83.

Most of the live-bearing species mature early and breed before reaching full size,
at ages from three to six months.

Although fertilization takes place in the same general manner as in warm-blooded
animals, and the young are developed within the body of the female, still it is not a
true process of gestation. There is no connection between the embryo and the circulatory
system of the mother. The eggs merely develop and hatch within her body and are
dropped when fully formed. The period of development is very variable, depending
on the species to some extent, but more upon temperature. We believe the time varies
from about six weeks to six months, the shorter time being more usual. It has been
noticed that a change of water is liable to bring about a delivery when the young ars
about ready to appear, which can be judged by the development of a large dark spot
near the vent of the female, as in figures 235, 236 and 239.

Figures 232 to 241 are all viviparous or live-bearing species.

253

Fig. 233. Platypoecilus maculatus niger (Two-thirds size)
One of the popular variations of Platypoecilus maculatus, commonly known as
"Black Platy." It is sometimes used as a progenitor in a number of hybridizing crosses,
especially with Xiphophorus varieties.

i

i- . ' ... ■

J|

Fig. 234. male Moluenisia latipinna
Here we see the male fish as he ordinarily appears when not "showing off."
Mollienisias are exceedingly fond of nibbling at algae, and this has an appreciable
effect in keeping aquarium plants and glass somewhat cleaner. When the glass is scraped
free of any green growth the fishes are unable to dislodge, they eat the scrapings. Finely
chopped crisp lettuce leaves should be given them occasionally if algse is not plentiful

Fig. 235. Platypoecilus maculatus, Female

These are popularly known as Moon Fish and this is the "golden" variety, being a
light gold color. There is a beautiful red spot in the dorsal fin which can hardly be ap-
preciated in an uncolored reproduction. Breeding habits, page 242 (No. 18).

254

Fig. 273a. Mollienisia sphenops (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Orange-tail varieties

Mollienisia sphenops, occurring on the Gulf Coast to Venezuela, and exhibiting a con-
siderable variation in color and size, is always hardy, active, prolific and good-looking.

The dorsal fin has fewer rays than either .1/. velifera or M. latipinna. The easiest
point of identification is the fact that the fin has its beginning at about the highest
point en the back. The fin on the other two popular species begins well forward, close
to the head.

All Mollienisias are live-bearers, and are benefitted by occasional feedings of bits of
scalded spinach.

254a

-J

Fig. 236. Lebutes reticulatus (.Incorrectly known as Uirardinus guppyij [Life size]
The extraordinary variation in the coloring of the males makes this species a never-
ending source of fascination. Xo matter how large the collection, it is practically impos-
sible to find two just alike. They are appropriately called the "Rainbow Fish." The
female is much larger than the male, and of a dull olive hue. See page 242 (No. 18).

Fig. 23 7. Gambusia affinis (Average size)
Also known as holbrooki, these fishes were the first of the live-bearers to be genci
ally introduced into the aquarium in America. They are native to the southeastern
Atlantic States and occur as far north as Maryland. Gantbusia affinis has been intro
duced in many parts of the world on account of its efficiency in destroying mosquito
larvae, thereby controlling malaria and yellow fever. Although hardier than most tropi-
cals, this fish cannot withstand freezing temperature. They tear the fins of other fishes
The darker specimens are the most sought after. Dark spot? near vent of females are
produced by unborn young. Breeding habits, page 242 (No. 18).

255

Fig. 238. Factors in Producing Hybrids Illustrated on Opposite Page

(Three-fourths size)
1, Xiphophorus helleri (green), female; 2, Xiphophorus helleri (green), male;
3, Platypoecilus maculatus (rubra), male; 4, Platypoecilus maculatus (rubra), female;
5, Hybrid male from crossing Nos. 3 and 1; 6, Hybrid female from crossing Nos. 3 and 1;
7, Xiphophorus helleri (orange), male.

Nos. 6 and 7 are the parents of hybrids shown in Fig. 239. All are live-bearing or
viviparous fishes.

256

Fig. 239. Red Hybrids (Life size)

One of the most remarkable productions in hybridization. On opposite page, num-
ber 3 is a small, deep-red fish. Number 1 is greenish with some red markings. This cross
produces some reddish hybrids, blotched black. When the reddest of these females is
bred to number 7, we get a magnificent, large red fish. It grows rapidly and becomes
considerably larger than any of its progenitors. These hybrids bred together throw a
surprisingly high percentage of reds — well over half. In a few generations of selective
breeding we should have a very fine strain of these beautiful fishes. Hybrids in fishes
seem to be moderately fertile.

The female (upper figure) was "ripe" when the photograph was made, shown by
distended outline and by the dark spot near the vent, which is not so plain as in some
of the more translucent fishes.

The possibilities of hybridization among live-bearing fishes are not fully known, but
the subject is receiving careful study. To be sure of known crosses it is best to place the
two fishes together before sexual characteristics have developed. If the sexes do not turn
out right, one still has virgin fishes to cross with those from other experimental aquaria.
A female once impregnated is fertile for four lots of young. Additional breeding habits
page 242 (No. 18).

257

'•

Fig. 240. Mollienisia species (Life size)

These fishes well illustrate the pronounced color differences shown between the sexes
of some species. To the uninitiated the difference is sometimes so great that a pair would
not be recognized as belonging to the same family. See page 242 (No. 18).

Fig. 241. Belonesox belizanus or Viviparous Killifish (Slightly reduced)

These little fishes are quite as bloodthirsty as their expression would appear to indi-
cate. After they attain adult size they prefer being fed on small living fish, although
worms are taken under protest. See page 242 (No. 18).

258

Fig. 242. Croaking Gourami (Ctenops vittatus)

The illustration shows one phase of the breeding habits of the bubble-nest builders,
of which there are a number. The nest is built of bubbles from the mouth of the male,
who takes entire charge of affairs. As the female drops a few eggs he at once fertilizes
them, picks them up in his mouth, attaches a bubble, and floats them into the nest,
where he guards them valiantly. If in a usual aquarium, the female must be removed
after spawning is completed, otherwise he will kill her, so zealous is he in guarding the
eggs and young from her possible cannibalism. In outdoor pool culture this does not
always appear to be true. We have seen many pairs work together in common interest.
Dwarf Gouramis like to interweave bits of vegetation into the nest, such as broken leaves
of Myriophyllum. In this work the female helps with apparent enthusiasm. Illustra-
tions 242 to 249 are all nest-builders. Additional breeding instructions on page 237
(No. 2).

259

Fig. 243. Betta splendens, Cambodia variety, or Veiltail Siamese Albino Fighting Fish

(Life size)
This fish and several other variations of the species suddenly appeared on the
aquarium horizon in 1927. They seem to be "sports" from Betta splendens. This par-
ticular variation has flashing red fin& which are usually very large in the second year,
and gorgeous when spread. The fins are partly overcast with a metallic greenish blue,
individuals varying considerably in this respect. The metallic hue extends somewhat
on the body, which is a deep cream color. In some variations the body is darker and
is nearly or completely covered with deep, metallic blue, comparable to that in a blue
butterflv. Such color only develops fully in adults, and, when present, the fish is known
as "Blue Betta."

Unfortunately males cannot be left together, as they tear each other's fins badly.
This illustration shows the male with the usual ragged tail-fin. He is spreading himself,
with gill-plates raised, in courtship before the demure lady above. Breeding habits,
same as Fig. 242.

260

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Fig. 244. Betta splendens, veiltail variety (Life size)
Text under preceding illustration for the most part applies here also. This specimen
is more nearly similar in color to the regular dark red of Betta splendens. The fins of
this individual have fortunately escaped injury.

Fie. 245. Macropodus cupanus dayi
Habit description with Fig. 242 applies to both these illustrations. Note the more
distinct coloring and longer fins of the upper fish. This is the male.

The scientific designations for male and female are: £ male; 9 female.

261

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Fig. 246. Three-Spot Gourami (Trichogaster trichopterus) [Average size]

(Formerly known as Osphromenus trichopterus)

Breeding habits, same as Fig. 242

J

Fig. 247. Giant Gourami (Colisa jasciatus) [Average size]
Two of the larger bubble-nest builders, both very handsome. The Giant Gourami is
particularly brilliant in breeding season. It is the eye which makes the third spot in the
Three-spot variety. Breeding habits, same as Fig. 242.

262

Fig. 248. Colisa lalia, or Dwarf Gourami (Male [Top] and Female)

One of the most pleasing of aquarium fishes. The males are exceedingly brilliant
when in a warm temperature.

The light bars are of a brilliant metallic blue, while the dark bars and fin markings
are an intense deep orange. Same breeding habits as Fig. 242.

.

Fig. 24Q. Macropodus opercularis, or Paradise Fish (Life size)
This is the first of the imported tropical fishes, and one of the best, although its
popularity has waned somewhat owing to the fact that so many of them have been bred
and newer species have taken its place in public interest. Habits, same as Fig. 242.

Fig. 250. Macropodus chinensis, or Roundtail Paradise Fish (Slightly enlarged)
This variety has very much the same habits of the old style Paradise Fish, but does
not grow quite as large. Breeding habits, same as Fig. 242.

263

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Fig. 251. Channa asiatica (Adult and Young)

of the more newly introduced hshes, and may be classed as a handsome oddity,
are of a silvery whiteness. The zigzag lines divide a greenish color on top irom
color below. Gifted with tremendous swallowing capacity and appetites to match,

ht prove dangerous associates to other fishes, although willing to eat prepared
containing a fair proportion of animal matter. They are air-breathing fishes
survive verv bad treatment, but cannot withstand cold. Breeding habits
(No. IS).

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252. Top View of Climbing Perch "Walking" on Land (Anabas testudinein;

[Half size]

Although this fish has no feet, "it gets there just the same." In its native habitat
the ponds have a way of drying up at seasons. If the water becomes very low this fish
leaves the pond at night, wriggles its way to a deeper one, and, if the dry spell continues,
buries itself in mud until more favorable times return. The "walking" is done mainly by
extending the spiny gill plates and working the body from side to side.

The fishes have air chambers in their gills and are known as "lung fishes." Breeding
habits, page 237 (No. 2).

264

Fig. 253. Pterophyllum scalare (Life size)

An aristocrat of the aquarium, moving with the greatest of dignity, yet capable ol
dashing about at lightning speed.

For some years this was known as "the rich man's fish," but importations from
European breeders have become so plentiful that young ones can now be had at fairh
moderate prices. Figures 253 to 265 are members of the Cichlid family of fishes.
P. scalare is not combative, but is fond of eating small fishes that may be swallowed
whole.

Aquaria containing Scalares should be well stocked with large plants. They are very
excitable at times and are liable to kill themselves by dashing head-on into the aquarium
glass. Plants seem to give them a bearing as to location and prevent this suicidal ten-
dency. Native to the Amazon River. Breeding habits, page 239.

265

Fig. 254. Cichlasoma jestivum (Slightly Reduced)
This beautiful fish from the Guianas is undoubtedly one of the most attractive
of our many aquarium specimens. The background varies from brassy-yellow to silvery,
sometimes crossed with faint vertical bars, but the strong, black, oblique characteristic
bar is always present. Mesonanta festivum is rather delicate when young, but after
reaching size shown in illustration it becomes more dependable. The "feelers," or
extensions of the pectoral fins are not developed in the first year, but later become
almost as pronounced as in Pterophyllum scalare. Although a cichlid, it is not war-like.
Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 6).

Fig. 255. Cichlasoma severum (Slightly reduced)
Generally known to aquarists as Heros spurius. One of the most beautiful and
variable of the Cichlids. Color ranges from fleeting shades of yellow, orange, violet
and green to dark green and black. When in one of its lighter dresses, the black bar
from dorsal to ventral fins is extremely bold. Iris red, with trace of vertical black bar
through it. Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 6).

266

Fig. 25o. Cichlasoma inert urn or Chanchito (Half Size)
One of the most satisfactory of the Cichlid group of fishes. They will survive in
moderately cool water and are not so savage as other members of the group. The breed-
ing habits and family life of a mated pair are most interesting to watch. The upper
figure shows the more rounded dorsal fin of the female, although it is not always so pro-
nounced as shown here. Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 6).

Fig. 257. Etroplus maculatus (Two-thirds size)
When we see the word maculatus in a scientific name, it has reference to spots.
Through the rapid color changes of this species the large characteristic centre spot usually
remains. Two others, one forward and one backward, sometimes appear. The fins
are delicately dotted and edged with red and brown shades. This fish must be well
cared for, especially as to continuous warmth, but it is worth the effort. From India.
Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 6).

Fig. 258. Hemichromis bimaculatus or Jewel Fish (Three-fourths size)
Of the savage Cichlids, Hemichromis bimaculatus is the fiercest we know. Even small
specimens cannot be safely kept together. If the fancier is fortunate enough to get a
pair safely mated, he will be rewarded by seeing both fish develop the most gorgeous
colors. Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 6).

267

Fig. 259. /Equidens latifrons (Popularly known as Acara coeruleum punctata)

In general this fish has the characteristics of other members of the Cichlid group.
It is one of the later importations. Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 6).

Fig. 260. /Equidens portalegrensis
Although this fish is classed among the fighters, it is an exception to the rule and so
far as has been observed it is a very peaceable citizen in the aquarium. Neither does it
uproot plants, as do most of this strenuous family. Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 6).

268

Fig. 2ol. Cichlasoma biocettatum or "Jack Dempsey"
A fish which varies greatly in color, according to temperature, excitement or state of
health. At times the brilliant blue-green metallic spots disappear, the background color
lightens and dark bars appear much the same as the normal markings of the Chanchito.
When the fish is upwards of five years old the brilliant coloring becomes more permanent.
This plate is made in slightly reduced size from a three-year-old specimen. Breeding
habits, page 238 (No. 6).

•

Fig. 262. Geophagus braziliensis
Not so well known as the foregoing, but somewhat different in coloring and at
least as beautiful. Comments as to color changes and habits are the same. Breeding
habits, page 238 (No. 6).

269

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Fig. 263. JEquidzns curviceps (Incorrectly Acara thayeri)

This is one of the newer importations and bids fair to become popular. Breeding
habits, page 238 (No. 6).

Fig. 264. Haplochromis multicolor, or Mouthbreeder (Life size)

There are many breeding methods among fishes which seem almost incredible to tht
novice, the Mouthbreeder being one of the most striking examples. After the eggs are
fertilized the female fills her mouth with them, retains them until hatched, and carries
the young about with her in the same way. During this period of several weeks she will
touch no food herself, this being one of Nature's clever provisions so she will have no
desire to swallow the eggs or young. Even if caught in a net, she tenaciously holds them,
neither losing or swallowing any.

In addition to their interesting breeding habits, these fishes have attractive and very
changeable markings. Further details of breeding on page 230 (No. 6a).

This fish and those shown in the eleven preceding illustrations are members of the
Cichlid family, but the breeding habits are not the same.

270

. -

Fig. 265. Tilapia tnacrocephala
In this instance the male carries eggs and young in his mouth. It he is caught
in a net. he is very likely to spit them all out. This does not mean they will not
hatch. They may do so, but should be in clear, clean water, and be gently stirred
several times daily. The eggs are very large, resembling mustard seed in size and color.
Hatching takes about a week. The young are mere threads attached to the egg, but
in another two weeks they completely absorb the yolk-sac and become quite sizable
fish. In adults the male has opaque gill plates. The female has a transparent pinkish
area about where the high light shows on the gill plate in the photograph.

~

Fig. 266. Ctenobrycon spilurus
An attractive silvery fish which has taken a permanent place in the homes of tropica)
rish fanciers. Breeding habits same as Barbel group, page 23S (No. 5).

271

Fig. 267. Pristella riddlei (Slightly reduced)
Although not brightly colored, this little fish has many admirers. Milk-white spots
on dorsal and anal fins, immediately adjoining intense black, spots, make an outstanding
effect, especially as the fish is very active. We do not often meet with opaque white in
fins. Lower dot in dorsal is yellow; tail is reddish. From Venezuela and Guiana and
the lower reaches of the Amazon. Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 5).

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Fig. 268. Copeina guttata (Also known as Pyrrhulina guttata) [Life size]

An outstanding aquarium fish on account of its delicate lavender shade and some-
what unusual fin formation. It is a suitable member for a "happy family" aquarium.
Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 5).

272

Fig. 2o9. Hyphessobrycon flammens (Two-thirds size)
Our illustration falls far short of doing justice to this flaming little fellow. It
should be shown in full color, which we hope to do later. The fore part of body is
metallic green, shading off to red, while the fins are deep red. Known to some aquarists
as Tetragonopterus from Rio, which is partially correct, for the fish comes from Rio de
Janeiro. Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 5).

Fig. 270. Aphyocharax rubripinnis (Incorrectly Tctragonoptcrns rubropictus)

[Slightly reduced]

The blood-red fins of this species attract instant attention. The body is greenish to
silvery, making the contrast as strong as possible. Although this fish seems comfortable
in the temperature of a tropical fish aquarium, it comes from a climate in Argentine
comparable to that of our milder states, say like that of Virginia. At any rate it is
capable of safely living in a temperature of about 60 degrees Fahrenheit, which is an
advantage. A most charming aquarium fish. The sexes are distinguished somewhat
peculiarly. The males have very small hooks on the anal fins. When the fisfi is lifted
in a net of Brussels netting (the proper kind to use for all small fishes) the male fish
sticks to the netting by these hooks and has to be shaken loose. Breeding habits, page
238 (No. 5).

273

Fig. 271. Mimagoniates barberi (Slightly reduced)

One of the newer arrivals, and likely to be permanent, as it is quite attractive.
The broad band down the body is deep blue. Fins orange to reddish. From Brazil and
Paraguay. Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 5).

Fig. 272. Moenkhausia oligolepis (Half size)
One of the features of this fish is the fiery red of the upper half of the eye, contrast-
ing with the subdued gray of the black-edged scales. It is a fish that stands out as
being different. In the adult size it is fairly large, as tropical aquarium fishes go, and
when fully grown the black spot in the caudal fin (tail) is less apparent. From Brazil.
Fairly gentle disposition. Breeding habits, page 238 (No. 5).

£.

Fig. 273. Characidium rachovi (Slightly reduced)
An importation from southeastern Brazil. Anal and caudal yellowish. Otherwise
fins are clear. Black line from mouth to tail, and is carried through the eye. Breeding
habits, page 238 (No. 5).

274

Fig. 235a. Mollienisia latipinna Golden Blond Variety

One of the comparatively new introductions into the aquarium, the Golden Blond
Mollienisia soon established itself favorably among aquarists who are not constitutionally
opposed to albinos of all sorts, for it must be said that this fish is a genuine pink-eyed
variety. The breed was produced by selective breeding from a single albino specimen
which was caught in the wild. The strain is now definitely established, and breeds true
to color.

274a

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Fig. 274. Rasbora heteromorpha (Slightly enlarged)
Of a light reddish color, with a vivid triangle of blue-black on the side, this fish is
most striking in appearance, particularly in a small aquarium. It lives for years if kept at
a warm temperature, but it is difficult to breed, few in the United States having yet
succeeded in propagating them. Here is an opportunity for a clever aquarist to accom-
plish something well worth while. See pace 240 (No. 8).

Fig. 275. Danio malabaricus (Lije sizej
In life the colors are not so strikingly marked as shown above. The darker parts are a
delightful opalescent color verging towards blue, and must be seen by reflected light to be
fully appreciated. The fins are shaded with reddish brown. The males are distinguished b>
the dark line running straight through the tail, while in the female it takes a slighi
upward turn. Breeding habits, page 240 (No. 8).

275

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Fig. 276. Brachydanio nigrojasciatus
Slightly smaller than rerio and not quite so brilliant. Below the two lateral stripes
is a line of dark dots. Although the life habits are the same as rerio, it is more difficult
to propagate. They are found in Burma.

Fig. 277. Brachydanio rerio (Known as Danio rerio J [Life size]

A moderate-sized aquarium, containing a number of Brachydanio rerios in a good
light, makes a beautiful picture. Their steel-blue stripes, alternating with white and
carried through the fins, give a brilliant effect as the fish play through the water, never
still a moment. The males have a slight yellowish cast in the lighter portion of the fins
during the breeding season. Easily bred. See page 240 (No. 8).

Fig. 278. Brachydanio albolineatus (Popularly known as Danio albolineatus)
This is a beautiful small fish of a pearly, warm iridescent nue. They have not been
bred in this country in large numbers. Breeding habits, page 240 (No. 8).

276

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Fig. 279. Fundulus nottii (Male) {Life size]
As stated in the text, some of our desirable tropical fishes come from our own
country. The subject of the illustration is a good example, the fish being native to
the southeastern states. It is highly regarded by foreign aquarists as it well should be,
for it is handsome, hardy and gentle. Breeding habits, page 240 (No. 8).

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Fig. 280. Fundulus nottii (Female) \Life size]

Fig 281. Barbus everetti (Slightly Reduced)

Owing to the large bluish spots on this fish, it might be described as one of the
clowns of the aquarium, although its movements are rather sedate. As aquarium
"barbs" go, this is quite large in size. Illustration shows the "whiskers" nearly always
present in this extensive group of fishes. Lateristriga is none too hardy but is otherwise
very desirable. From Sumatra, Java, Borneo and vicinity. Breeding habits, page 240
(No. 8).

277

Fig. 282. bar bus semifascwlatus {Full size)
The small Barbs are excellent aquarium fishes. They are usually of a warm silver
color, marked with black bars or dots. Very gentle in disposition and thoroughly hardy
in moderate temperatures. See page 2-40 (No. S).

Fig. 283. Barbus conchonius
One of the most satisfactory of the Barbs. They are of a metallic, glistening ap-
pearance, very brilliant in the aquarium and in the breeding season the males are gorge-
ously suffused with a warm shade of pink. See page 240 ^JSio. 6).

278

Fig. 2S4. Ambassh lata or Glassfish (Slightly Reduced)
These interesting little fishes from India are so nearly transparent that most of the
skeleton and "inner works" are plainly visible either by transmitted or direct light.
The spinal column, air bladder and ribs are shown in the photograph. The fish is very
flat. It is almost without color, except for a faint yellowish tinge, darker in the males
than the females. Fins on males are delicately edged green. Although extremely delicate
in appearance, this fish does fairly well in the aquarium, provided it is kept warm and
fed on live daphnia or white worms. Certainly it is one of the most delightful aquarium
novelties we have, and likely to remain in the select class for some time, as we have not
mastered the breeding of this species. What little we know is on page 237 (No. 1).

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Fig. 285. Butterfly Fish (Pantodon buchholzi) [Life size]
(Also Freshwater Flying Fish)

Although the Butterfly Fish has been with us quite some years, it has never beei<
plentiful and we have heard of no records of its having been bred. It is the habit ol
these fishes to lie idly at the top of the water ready to pounce upon their prey, consisting
of insects or anything that moves and which it is capable of swallowing. The mouth is
enormous in proportion to the size of the fish. The fish's capacity for eating large victims
is quite considerable. The most practical food for them in captivity is earth worms,
which they soon learn to take from the fingers. From Congo and vicinity.

The fish is a great jumper and is said to be able to leap several feet. Aquaria con-
taining Butterfly Fish should be tightly covered Breeding habits, page 241 (No. 16).

279

Fig. 286. Polycentrus schomburgki (Life size)
Although this interesting fish has been bred rather freely at times, it has so far
remained in the select class and is only occasionally obtainable. Prefers live diet,
but will eat the patent food, "Kennel Rations." Breeding habits, page 243 (No. 19).

Fig. 287. Scatophagus argus (Aquarium size)

In a lithe fish with long fins we expect speed, and in a "dumpy" specimen with
short fins we look for slowness of movement. It oftens works out in reverse. Our
present subject is a case in point. This odd-looking species is very active and quick of
movement, especially in aggressively chasing those of its own kind.

The brilliant black or greenish dots are variable as to number, the background
being a pale, metallic green. In others the dots are replaced by vertical or oblique
bars of a brownish color. These are believed to be males. Little is known of their
breeding habits. They are really marine fishes and not much can be expected of breeding
them in the aquarium. They are not often obtainable, and are considered to be among
the "first families" in the tropical aquarium.

Although they can live in fresh water, best results are had by keeping them in
about one part of sea water and three parts fresh. As water evaporates, add only fresh.

280

Fig. 288. Badis badis (Half size)

Although without striking coloration, Badis badis has long been a popular aquarium
fish. Color purplish to bluish black with belly lighter. A carnivorous fish from India.
Breeding habits, page 241 (No. 14).

Fig. 2S q . Tetraodon fluviatilis (Life Size)
A strange little fish from India. It reminds one somewhat of the "Box Fish" which
we see in the large city aquaria. They are very broad and although the body seems rigid,
the fins and tails work with great vigor and the fish is never still an instant. The lower
part of the body is white and the upper part is suffused with green, dotted over with large
black spots. This fish is full of fight and not well suited to be in an aquarium with other
fishes. Breeding habits, unknown.

281

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Fig. 290. Melanotaenia nigrans (Slightly reduced)
Recently imported from Australia and popularly known as the Australian Rainbow
Fish. We predict a permanent place for this beautiful species. The general color is
golden with stripes of brown, blue and red. Bright red spot on opercle (gill cover).
Easily bred in large open warm pools or tanks. For a fish not coming from the tropics
its period of incubation is short, being only about 54 hours at a temperature of 76
degrees.

Fig. 291. Malapterurus electricus (Electric Cattish)

This most curious aquarium fish, when taken in hand, gives an electric shock which
may clearly be felt as high as the elbow. How this is accomplished is not clearly under-
stood, as it is supposed to be necessary to touch two electric poles to receive a current.
If the head and tail of the fish were the poles, the current would only pass from one part
of the hand to the other, instead of up the arm. The fish i9 able to cause the shock either
in or out of the water. This is doubtless a means of self-defense, as the current is
scarcely strong enough to kill a victim intended for food. Breeding habits unknown.

282

Fig. 292. Pimelodella gracilis (Slightly reduced)

One of the many small tropical catfishes from northern South America. There are
three pairs of barbels, or "whiskers," two pairs of which are extremely long. The fish
is an active one, and, as it swims about the aquarium, the black line against silvery
sides produces a striking and pleasing effect. Like other catfishes, it is easily fed.
Breeding habits unknown.

L

Fig. 293. Corydoras undulatus or Armored Catfish (Life size)

Sometimes known to aquarists as Callichthys. There are many species closely
resembling this photograph, and they all come from northern South America.

Corydoras is a quaint little fish and very well adapted to life in the aquarium.
Principally a ground-feeder, it is regarded as something of an aquarium scavenger
Quite harmless. Breeding habits, page 237 (No. 3).

Fig. 294. Hypostomus species
One of the oddities from South America, the fish tenaciously holding on to the bottom
or sides of the aquarium by suction of the mouth and lower part of the body. Specimens
so far imported have lived a long time but have not yet been bred. Catfish family.

283

Fig. 295. Dormitator macidatus (Aquarium size)

In the West Indies, southeastern United States and northern South America whe r c
this fish is found rather freely, it attains a size of ten inches. It is rather sluggish,
spending much time on the bottom of the aquarium. A blue spot above the gill edge.
white dots in fins and the line of dark vertical dots down the side are pleasing charac-
teristics. It belongs to the Gobi family and little is known of the breeding habits.

Fig. 296. Euchoristopus barbarus (Incorrectly listed in dealers* catalogs as
Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Popular names. "Mud Springer'' and "Stone Skipper")

Two-thirds life size)

This is one of the most remarkable of fishes and seems to form a connecting link
between aquatic and amphibious animals. As the tide recedes, these little fellows make
no effort to follow it, but instead come out on the mud flats, stones, and even climb small
bushes in search of insect prey, which they are adepts at catching "on the wing''. The
pectoral fins, nearly developed into legs, are used in vigorous leaping. See page 240
(No. 10).

284

Fig. 2°oa.. Xotrop: Baird and Girard

As will be seen by the illustration, this is a most beautiful minnow. It is found in
the streams of the central and southern Mississippi Valley. In some places it is sc
numerous that it is used as a bait fish.

Unfortunately the bright, iridescent colors shown here are at their best only in the
spring months, during their breeding season.

The species breeds like the Goldfish, scattering adhesive iggs and paying no attention
to them. They are not reared commercially because it is easy enough to catch them in
the wild. An aquarium of about :5-gallon capacity containing perhaps a dozen of these
fishes disporting themselves is indeed a beautiful sight. They readily take any kind of
food, prepared or living.

??4a

CHAPTER TWENTY

^SS^JC^QS^Ji

ical List of Aquarium. Fishes, ^
their Breeding Habits, Care, Etc* /

The compiling of a list of names of aquarium fishes presents several
difficulties which ought to be understood by the reader.

As new species are brought in by sailors and others they find their
way into the hands of dealers who at best have only slight equipment
for identifying specimens. Commercial necessity demands that some sort
of name be given quickly. In many cases the aid of scientific friends
and institutions is invoked for a hasty or general classification. The fact
is that a quick and accurate identification is often impossible, and in
many instances the careful work of an able scientist must be revised.
This will easily be realized when it is remembered that science has so
far listed upwards of 20,000 species of fishes.

The result has been that a considerable proportion of aquarium fishes
have been mis-named as to species and not a few as to family also. As
might be expected, many of the incorrect names have been popularly ac-
cepted and come into general usage among fanciers.

It will undoubtedly be helpful to many readers to have the fishes listed
in different ways, so that no matter under what name the fish was first
introduced to them, they will be able to readily locate it and secure the
desired information regarding its requirements and habits. This has
been done.

Those who care to correct names and bring them up to the latest
scientific revisions will find the arrangement of the list makes it easy to
do so.

Old or obsolete names which have been revised are in regular
Roman type, such as is used here for these remarks. The accepted scien-
tific names are in Italics, or sloping letter. In such lines comes first the
fish name, then the name of the ichthyologist who first named the species.
If the first name or genus has been changed to another genus since he
named it, his name is placed in parenthesis. The common name, if any
is known, follows. Then comes the habitat or natural geographical loca-
tion of the fish, which is followed by the family to which it belongs. The

286 A LPHABETICAL LIST OF FISHES

family is an important matter. It furnishes the student with clues as to
general appearance and habits. Length in inches follows. This repre-
sents maximum size so far as known., and in some instances is consider-
ably larger than would be expected or desired in aquarium specimens.
Lastly comes the reference or key number to general information regard-
ing the fish, which is merely a convenient way of finding, on pages 237 to
244, such data regarding the different fish families as will be needed by
our fancier friends.

In a very few instances a family must be sub-divided into different
methods of breeding, but this has been provided for in each case. The
principal ones in this respect are the Killifishes (Poeciliidae), some being
egg-droppers and others live-bearers or viviparous. The viviparous species
are indicated by the letter (V.)

In just a few instances aquarists have known fishes by names of
species which are not only incorrect, but which have never been imported.
A star (*) is printed at the end of the line with these, together with
the correct name of the aquarium specimen, sometimes abbreviated as
Aq. sp.

Bearing in mind these few explanations the intelligent use of this
list and the information key following is an extremely simple matter.
In a few moments it is possible to secure practical data regarding almost
any of the many established varieties of aquarium fishes.

In the preparation of the list in its present revised form the author
has had the honor of the assistance of Mr. George S. Myers, of Smith-
sonian Institution. Mr. Myers did a vast amount of work in running
down wrong nomenclature, in supplying needed information and in re-
writing important parts of the chapter. The list follows:

Key
Number
Abramis chrysoleucas. See Notemigonus c.

Acara. See under .ZEquidens.

Achirus. See Trinectes.

Adiniops. See Nothobranchius.

Mquidens cceruleopunctatus (Kner & Steindachner). Cichlidae. Co-
lombia. 6". Apparently not yet imported. The aquarists'
species probably yi. latifrons 6

Mquidens curviceps (Ahl). Cichlidae. Amazon. 2" 6

Mquidens dorsigera. Not yet imp. Aquarium sp. = JE. curviceps.*

Mquidens latijron s (Steindachner). Cichlidae. Colombia. 6" 6

Mquidens portalegrensis (Hensel). Cichlidae. Paraguay. 5" 6

Mquidens pulcher (Gill). Cichlidae. Trinidad, Venezuela. 6".... 6

Mquidens tetramerus (Heckel). Cichlidae. Amazon, Guiana. 6".. 6
Mquidens thayeri. Not yet imp. Aquarium sp. = 7E. curviceps.*

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF FISHES 287

Aljaro cultratum (Regan). Poeciliidae. Costa Rica. 2J^" 18

Allopoecilia caucana (Steindachner). Poeciliidae. Colombia. V/2" 18
Ambassis lata (Hamilton Buchanan). Ambassidae. India, in brack-
ish water. V/2" 8

Ameiurus nebulosus Le Sueur. Common Catfish. Siluridae. East.

U.S. Up to 18" 21

Anabas argentoventer. See Ctenopoma a.

Anabas fasciolatus. See Ctenopoma f.

Anabas scandens. See Anabas testudineus.

Anabas testudineus (Bloch). Climbing Perch. Anabantidae. East

Indies 2

Aorta vittata (Bloch). Siluridae. India. 7" 21

Apeltes quadracus (Mitchell). Four-spined Stickleback. Gaster-
osteidae. 2" 9

Aphanius dispar (Ruppel). Poeciliidae. Brackish water, Red Sea,
Persian Gulf, and Cutch. 3" 18

Aphanius jasciatus (Valenciennes). Poeciliidae. Brackish water,
shores of Mediterranean. 2" 18

Aphanius iberus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Poeciliidae. Spain and

Algeria. 1%" . 18

Aphyocharax rubripinnis Pappenheim. Characidae. Argentina. 2" 5

Aphyosemion australe (Rachow). Poeciliidae. Cape Lopez, W.
Africa. 2 l / 2 H 18

Aphyosemion caeruleum (Boulenger). "Blue Gularis." Poeciliidae.
Nigeria. 5" 18

Aphyosemion calliurum (Boulenger). Poeciliidae. Liberia. 2]/ 2 " . . 18
Aphyosemion gidare (Boulenger). "Yellow Gularis." Poeciliidae.

Nigeria. 3" 18

Aphyosemion sjoestedti (Loennberg). Poeciliidae. W. Africa. 3" 18

Apistogramma corumbae (Eigenmann & Ward). Cichlidae. Para-
guay. 2" 6

Aplocheilichthys spilauchen (Dumeril). Poeciliidae. W. Africa. 3" 18

Aplocheilus latipes. Medaka. Japan. 2" 18

Apomotis cyanellus (Rafinesque). Blue-green sunfish. Centrarchidae.
Mid-West U. S. 7" 4

Arnoldichthys spilopterus (Boulenger). Characidae. W.Africa. 2^4" 5

Astyanax bimaculatus (Linnaeus). Characidae. S. America east
of the Andes, north of B. Aires. 5" 5

Astyanax jasciatus (Cuvier). Characidae. Mexico to Buenos Aires.

5" 5

Astyanax taeniatus (Jenyns). Characidae. S. E. Brazil. 3 J/2" 5

Astyanax mexicanus (Filippi). Characidae. Mexico and S. Texas.

m" 5

Badis badis (Hamilton Buchanan). Nandidae. India. 2" 14

288 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF FISHES

Barbus binotatus Cuvier & Valenciennes. Cyprinidae. Malay Archi-
pelago. 7" 8

Barbus conchonius (Hamilton Buchanan). Cyprinidae. India. 5". 8

Barbus lateristriga (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Cyprinidae. Borneo. 8
Barbus maculatus. See B. binotatus.

Barbus oligolepis (Bleeker). Cyprinidae. Sumatra. lj£" 8

Bar b us phutunio (Hamilton Buchanan). Cyprinidae. India. 1"... 8

Barbus semijasciolatus Guenther. Cyprinidae. S.China. 2>y 2 " . . . . 8

Barbus terio (Hamilton Buchanan). Cyprinidae. India. 2" 8

Barbus vittatus (Day). Cyprinidae. India. Iffi 8

Belonesox belizanus Kner. Poeciliidae. (V.) S. Mexico, Brit. Hon-
duras, and Guatemala. 6" 18

Betta rubra. Not yet imp. Aquarium species = B. splendens.*

Betta splendens Regan. Fighting Fish. Anabantidae. Siam. 2".. 2

Betta cambodia. Variety of above.

Boleichthys jusijormis (Girard). Percidae. East. U. S. 2" 17

Boleosoma nigrum (Rafinesque). "Johnny Darter." Percidae.
East. U.S. 2" 17

Brachydanio albolineatus (Blyth). Pearl Danio. Cyprinidae.
Burma. 2" 8

Brachydanio analipunctatus. See B. nigrofasciatus.

Brachydanio nigrofasciatus (Day). Spotted Danio. Cyprinidae.

Burma. VA" 8

Brachydanio rerio (Hamilton Buchanan). Striped Danio. Cyprin-
idae. Coromandel to Bengal. \}i" 8

Brachyrhaphis episcopi (Steindachner). Poeciliidae. (V.) Panama.

Wz" 18

Callichthys callichthys (Linnaeus). Callichthyidae. S. America. 6" 3

Carassius auratus (Linnaeus). Goldfish. Cyprinidae. Asia. 12".. 8

Carnegiella strigata (Guenther). Characidae. Guiana and Peruvian
Amazon. \ l / 2 " 5

Centrarchus macropterus (Lacepede). "Flier." Centrarchidae.
South Atl. coast region and Miss. Valley. 6" 4

Channa asiatica (Linnaeus). Snakehead, Walking-fish. Ophiceph-
alidae. China. 8" IS

Channa fasciata. See C. asiatica.

Channa punctata (Bloch). Snakehead. Ophicephalidae. India. 12" IS

Cheirodon arnoldi. Not yet imp. Aq. sp. = Astyanax mexicanus.

Chriopeops goodei (Jordan). Poeciliidae. Peninsular Florida, lyi" 18

Chrosomus erythrogaster Rafinesque. Cyprinidae. Mid. West. U. S.
3" 8

Chrosomus oreas. Painted Dace. Cope. Cyprinidae. Southeast

U. S. 2Y 2 " 8

Cichlasoma biocellatum (Regan). Cichlidse. Amazon. 8 or 9" 6

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF FISHES 289

Cichlasoma bimaculatum (Linnaeus). Cichlidae. Guiana and Brazil.

6" 6

Cichlasoma jacetum (J enyns). Cichlidae. LaPlata. 8" 6

Cichlasoma festivum. See Mesonauta f.

Cichlasoma severum. Cichlidae. Brazil. 3"-6" 6

Clinostomus vandoisulus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Cyprinidae. East

U. S. 5" 8

Cnesterodon decemmaculatus (Jenyns). Poeciliidae. (V.) La Plata.

m" 18

Cobitis fossilis. See Misgurnus f.

Colisa fasciata (Bloch & Schneider). Striped Gourami. Anabantidae.

India. 4" 4

Colisa labiosa (Day). Thick-lipped Gourami. Anabantidae. Burma.

3" 2

Colisa lalia (Hamilton Buchanan). Dwarf Gourami. Anabantidae.

Bengal. 2" 2

Colossoma nigripinnis. See Piaractus n.

Copeina arnoldi Regan. Characidae. Amazon. 2" 5

Copcina callolepis Regan. Characidae. Amazon. 3" 5

Copeina guttata (Steindachner). Characidae. Amazon. 4" 5

Corydoras nattereri (Steindachner). Callichthyidae. S. E. Brazil. \ l / 2 " 3
Corydoras paleatus (Jenyns). Callichthyidae. Rio Grande do Sul.

2" 3

Corynopoma riisei Gill. Characidae. Trinidad. 2y 2 " 5

Ctenobrycon haiixwellianus (Cope). Characidae. Amazon. iy 2 " . . 5
Ctenobrycon spilurus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Characidae. Guiana.

2Y 2 " 5

Ctenopoma argent ov enter (Ahl). Anabantidae. Niger. 5" 2

Ctenopoma jasciolatum (Boulenger). Anabantidae. W. Africa. 3" 2
Cubanichthys cubensis (Eigenmann). Poeciliidae. Cuba. 2".... 18

Cynolebias adlofii Ahl. Poeciliidae. S. E. Brazil. V/ 2 " 18

Cynolebias belottii Steindachner. Poeciliidae. LaPlata. iy 2 " 18

Cynolebias wolterstorfiii Ahl. Poeciliidae. S. E. Brazil. 4" 18

Cyprinodon dispar. See Aphanius d.

Cyprinodon fasciatus. See Aphanius f.

Cyprinodon iberus. See Aphanius i.

Cyprinodon macularius (Baird & Girard). Desert minnow.

Poeciliidae. Springs in deserts of S. Calif. 3" 18

Cyprinodon sophiae. See Aphanius s.

Cyprinodon variegatus Lacepede. Poeciliidae. Brackish water, E.

U. S. 3" 18

Cyprinus auratus. See Carassius a.

Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus. Carp. Cyprinidae. China. 3 ft 8

Danio albolineatus. See Brachydanio a.
Danio analipunctatus. See Brachydanio a.

290 ALPHAB ETICAL LIST OF FISHES

Danio malabaricus (Jordon). Malabar Danio. Cyprinidae. Mala-
bar Coast, India. 4" 8

Danio rerio. See Brachy danio r.

Dermogenys pusillus van Hasselt. Live-bearing Halfbeak. Hemi-
ramphidae. E. Indies, brackish water. 3" 12

Diplesion blennioides. See Etheostoma b.

Dormitator maculatus (Bloch) . Gobiidae. E. cost Cent. Amer. 6". 10
Elassoma evergladei Jordan. Pigmy Sunfish. Centrarchidae. South-
ern States, U. S. 1" 4

Elassoma zonatum Jordan. Pigmy Sunfish. Centrarchidae. South-
ern States, U. S. 1" 4

Enneacanthus gloriosus (Holbrook). Blue-spot Sunfish. Centrar-
chidae. East U. S. 3" 4

Enneacanthus obesus (Baird). Centrarchidae. East U. S. 3".... 4

Epiplatys chaperi (Sauvage). Pceciliidae. Liberia. 2" 18

Epiplatys jasciolatus (Guenther). Pceciliidae. Sierra Leone. S J /i" . . 18

Epiplatys grahami (Boulenger). Poeciliidae. Nigeria. 2" 18

Epiplatys sex j as ciatus (Gill). Pceciliidae. W.Africa. 4" 18

Esomus danrica (Hamilton Buchanan). Flying Barb. Cyprinidae.

India. 5" 8

Esomus malabaricus Day. Cyprinidae. Malabar Coast, India. 2J4" 8

Esomus malayensis Ahl. Cyprinidae. Habitat unknown. V/2" . ... 8

Etheostoma blennioides Rafinesque. Green-sided Darter. Percidae.
Central U.S. 5" 17

Etheostoma coeruleum. See Poecilichthys c.

Etroplus maculatus (Bloch). Cichlidae. India. 3" 6

Eucalia inconstans (Kirtland). Brook Stickleback. Gasterosteidae.

Brooks, Northern U. S. iy 2 " 9

Eupomotis gibbosus (Linnaeus). Common sunfish, "Pumpkin seed."

Centrarchidae. E. U. S. 6" 4

Eupomotis gibbosus. See Lepomis g.

Eupomotis punctatus. See Lepomis p.

Fitzroyia lineata. See Jenynsia 1.

Fundulopanchax, all species. See under Aphyosemion.

Fundulus caeruleus. See Aphyosemion caeruleum.

Fundulus chrysotus Holbrook. Poeciliidae. South U. S. 2 T /z" 18

Fundulus cingulatus Cuvier & Valenciennes. Poeciliidae. S. E. U. S.

2" 18

Fundulus confluentus Goode & Bean. Poeciliidae. Maryland to

Texas, near coast. 3" 18

Fundulus cubensis. See Cubanichthys c.

Fundidus diaphanus (Le Sueur) . Poeciliidae. N. E. U. S. 4J£".... 18

Fundulus dis par (Agassiz). Poeciliidae. Centr. U. S. 2 l /t" 18

Fundulus goodei. See Chriopeops g.

Fundulus guentheri. See Nothobranchius guentheri.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF FISHES 291

Fundulus gularis blue. See Aphyosemion caeruleum.

Fundulus gularis yellow. See Aphyosemion gulare.

Fun dulus notatus (Rafinesque). Poeciliidae. Central U. S. 3".... 18

Fundulus nottii (Agassiz). Star-head Minnow. Poeciliidae. S. E.

U. S. 3" 18

Fundulus ocellaris. See F. confluentus.

Fundulus sjoestedti. See Aphyosemion s.

Fundulus zebrinus. See Plancterus z.

Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard). Top Minnow. Poeciliidae.

Southern Mississippi Valley. 2" 18

Gambusia bimaculata. See Pseudoxiphophorus b.

Gambusia episcopi. See Brachyrhaphis e.

Gambusia holbrookii (Agassiz). Poeciliidae. (V.) N. J. to Fla. 2" 18

Gambusia modesta Ahl. See G. patruelis.

Gambusia myersi Ahl. See G. patruelis.

Gambusia nicaraguensis Guenther. Poeciliidae. (V.) Centr. Amer. 2" 18

Gambusia nobilis (Baird & Girard). Poeciliidae. (V.) Texas and
N. Mexico. 2^" 18

Gambusia patruelis (Baird & Girard). Poeciliidae. (V.) Miss. Val-
ley. 2" 18

Gambusia punctata Poey. Poeciliidae. (V.) Cuba. Z l / 2 " 18

Gasteropelecus fasciatus. See Carnegiella.

Gasteropelecus securis. See Thoracocharax s.

Gasteropelecus stellatus. See Thoracocharax and Pterodiscus.

Geophagus brasiliensis (Quoy & Gaimard). Cichlidae. Brazil. 5". 6

Girardinus decemmaculatus. See Cnesterodon d.

Girardinus met allicus (Poey). Poeciliidae. Cuba. 2^ y 18

Girardinus reticulatus. See Phalloceros.

Gymnotus carapo Linnaeus. Gymnotidae. S. America. 16" 11

Haplochilus cameronensis. Not yet imp. Aquarium specimens —
Aphyosemion australe.*

Haplochilus calliurus. See Aphyosemion call.

Haplochilus chaperi. See Panchax chap.

Haplochilus fasciolatus. See Panchax fasc.

Haplochilus grahami. See Panchax gr.

Haplochilus latipes. See Aplocheilus lat.

Haplochilus lineatus. See Panchax lin.

Haplochilus from Madras. See Panchax parvus.

Haplochilus panchax. See Panchax pan.

Haplochilus playfairii. See Pachypanchax playf.

Haplochilus sexfasciatus. See Panchax sexf.

Haplochromis multicolor (Schoeller). Egyptian Mouthbreeder. Cich-
lidae. Egypt. 2Ya" 6a

Haplochromis strigigena — H. bloyeti Sauyage. E. Africa. Not yet
imp. Aquarium specimens == H. multicolor.

292 ALPHA BETICAL LIST OF FISHES

Helostoma temminckii Cuvier & Valenciennes. Anabantidae. E.

Indies. 12" 2

Hemibrycon guppyi (Regan). Characidae. Trinidad. 3J4" 5

Hemichromis auritus. See H. fasciatus.

Hemichromis bimaculatus Gill. Cichlidae. Trop. Africa. 6" 6

Hemichromis fasciatus Peters. Cichlidae. W. Africa. 10" 6

Hemigrammus caudovittatus Ahl. Characidae. Buenos Aires. 2 l / 2 " 5

Hemigrammus ocellijer (Steindachner). Characidae. E.Brazil. 2 l / 2 " 5

Ilemigrammus rhodostomus Ahl. Characidae. Brazil. 2" 5

Hemigrammus rodwayi Durbin. Characidae. Guiana and Para. 2" 5

Hemigrammus ulreyi (Boulenger). Characidae. Rio Paraguay. V/ 2 " 5

Hemigrammus unilineatus Gill. Characidae. Trinidad, Guiana. \}i" 5

Hemiramphus fluviatilis. See Dermogenys.

Herichthys cyanogutUatus Baird & Girard. Cichlidae. Texas and

Mexico. 7" 6

Heros facetus. See Cichlasoma f.

Heros spurius. See Cichlasoma severum.

H eterandria jormosa Agassiz. Poeciliidae. (V.) S. East. U. S. V/4" 18

Heterogramma corumbae. See Apistogramma c.

Heteropneustes f ossilis (Bloch). Siluridae. India. 12" 21

Hollandichthys midti fasciatus (Eigenmann & Norris). Characidae.

S. E. Brazil. 4" 5

Hyphessobrycon anisitsi. Not yet imp. Aquarium species = Hemi-
grammus caudovittatus.*

Hyphessobrvcon bifasciatus Ellis. "Yellow Tetra." Characidae.

S. E. B'razil. 2 l / 2 " 5

Hyphessobrycon fiammeus Myers. "Red from Rio." Characidae.

Rio de Janeiro. 1 J4" 5

Hyphessobrycon innesi. Myers. Characidae. Upper Amazon. 1%" . . 5

Hyphessobrycon heterorhabdus (Ulrey). Characidae. Amazon. 1^4" 5

Hypopomus brevirostris (Steindachner). Gymnotidae. S. America.

7" 11

Idus idus (Linnaeus). Golden Ide. Cyprinidae. Europe and N.
Asia. 24" 8

Iguanodectes rachovii. See I. tenuis.

I guanodectes tenuis Cope. Characidae. Amazon. 3" 5

Jordanella floridae Goode & Bean. Poeciliidae. Florida. 2" 18

Lebias. See Aphanius.

Lebistes reticulatus (Peters) . "Guppy". Poeciliidae. (V.) North-
ern South Amer. 2" 18

Lepomis auritus (Linnaeus). Long-eared Sunfish. Centrarchidae.
East. U.S. 6" 4

Lepomis incisor (Cuvier & Valenciennes). " Blue-Gill." Centrar-
chidae. East, and Centr. U. S. 12" 4

Lepomis megalotis (Rafinesque) . Western Long-eared Sunfish. Cen-
trarchidae. Centr. U.S. 6" 4

Lepomis pallidus. See L. incisor.

Leuciscus vandoisulus. See Clinostomus vand.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF FISHES 293

Limia arnoldi (=* nigrojasciata). Aquarium species = L. vittata.*

Limia caudofasciata Regan. "Blue Poecilia." (V.) Jamaica. 2" 18

Limia nigrojasciata Regan. Poeciliidae. (V.) Santo Domingo. 2" 18

Limia vittata (Guichenot). Poeciliidae. (V.) Cuba. 4" 18

Macrones vittatus. See Aoria vitt.

Macropodus chinensis (Bloch). Round-tail Paradise Fish. Anaban-
tidae. China. 2^2" 2

Macropodus cupanus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Anabantidae. India.

2" 2

Macropodus opercularis (Linnaeus). Paradise Fish (Forked-tail).

Anabantidae. S. China. 2> l / 2 " 2

Macropodus viridi-auratus. See M. opercularis.

Malapterurus electricus (Gmelin). Electric Goldfish. Siluridae.
W.Africa. 6" 21

Melanotaenia nigrans. Rainbow Fish. Atherinidae. Australia. 4" 8

Mcsogonistius chcctodon (Baird). Black-banded Sunfish. Centrar-
chidae. E. U. S. 2" 4

Mesonauta jestivum (Heckel) . Cichlidae. S.America. 4" 6

Mesonauta insignis. See M. festivum.

Mimagoniates barberi Regan. Characidae. S. E. Brazil. 2" 5

Mimagoniates tnicrolepis (Steindachner). Characidae. Southwest-
ern Brazil. 2" 5

Misgurnus jossilis (Bloch). "Weather fish." Cobitidae. Europe. 6" 7

Moenkhausia oligolepis (Guenther). Characidae. Amazon to Guiana.

7" 5

Mollienisia caucana. See Allopoecilia c.

Mollicnisia latipinna LeSueur. Poeciliidae. (V.) Southern United

States. 4" 18

Mollienisia sphenops (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Poeciliidae. (V.)

Centr. America. 3" 18

Mollienisia velif era Regan. Poeciliidae. (V.) Yucatan. A l / 2 " 18

Monodactylus argcnteus (Linnaeus). Monodactylidae. E. Indies,

brackish water. 6"

Mylossoma aurcum (Agassiz). Characidae. Amazon. 6" 5

Nandus marmoratus. See N. nandus.

Nandus nandus (Hamilton Buchanan). Nandidae. India. 7" 14

Neetroplus carpintis. See Herichthys.

Notemigonus chrysoleucas (Mitchell). Shiner; Roach. Cyprinidae.

E. N. America. 12" 8

Nothobranchius guentheri (Pfeffer). Poeciliidae. E.Africa. 3"... 18
Nothobranchius orthonotus (Peters). Poeciliidae. E.Africa. 3".. 18
Notropis bijrenatus (Cope). Bridled Minnow. Cyprinidae. Maine

to Virginia. lYi" 8

Notropis chrosomus (Jordan). Cyprinidae. Alabama Basin. 2y 2 " 8
Notropis hudsonius (DeWitt Clinton). "Spawn-eater." Cyprinidae.

Gt. Lakes and N. Y. South to S. Carolina. 4" 8

294 ALPHA BETICAL LIST OF FISHES

Notropis lutrensis (Baird & Girard). Cyprinidae. Miss. Valley. 3" 8
Notropis maculatus (Hay). Cyprinidae. Mississippi to Southern

Georgia. 2y 2 " 8

Notropis metallicus Jordan & Meek. Cyprinidae. Ga. and N. Fla.

1M" 8

Notropis whipplii analostanus (Girard). "Silver-fin." Cyprinidae.

Atl. Coast States. 4" 8

Nuria. See Esomus.

Ophicephalus. See Channa.

Oryzias latipes. Medaka. See Aplocheilus latipes.

Osphromenus striatus. See Ctenops.

Osphromenus malayanus. See Sphaerichthys.

Osphromenus trichopterus. See Trichogaster trich.

Otocinclus arnoldi Regan. Loricariidae. S. E. Brazil. V/a," 13

Pachypanchax playjairii (Guenther). Poeciliidae. Seychelles Isl.

and Zanzibar. 2" 18

Panchax chaperi (Sauvage). Poeciliidae. Liberia. 2" 18

Panchax jasciolatus (Guenther). Poeciliidae. Sierra Leone. 3J4" 18

Panchax grahami (Boulenger). Poeciliidae. Nigeria. 2" 18

Panchax lineatus Cuvier & Valenciennes. Poeciliidae. Malabar,

India. 2>y 2 " 18

Panchax panchax (Hamilton Buchanan). Poeciliidae. India and the

Malay Island. 2}i" 18

Panchax parvus Raj. ' ' Haplochilus from Madras." Poeciliidae.

Madras. 1}4" 18

Panchax playjairii. See Pachypanchax.

Panchax sex fas ciat,us (Gill) . Poeciliidae. W.Africa. 4" 18

Pantodon buchholzi Peters. Pantodontidae. W.Africa. 5" 16

Paragoniates microlepis. See Mimagoniates m.
Paratilapia multicolor. See Haplochromis m.
Pelmatochromis arnoldi. See Hemichromis fasciatus.
Periophthahnus barbarus (Linnaeus). Mud Skipper. Gobiidae,

Brackish waters, shores of Indian and S. W. Pacific Ocean. 4". 10
Petersius spilopterus. See Arnoldichthys.

Phallichthys pittieri (Meek). Poeciliidae. (V.) Costa Rica. 2".. 18
Phalloceros caudimaculatus (Hensel). Poeciliidae. (V.) S. E. S.

America. 1^" 18

Phalloptychus januarius. Not yet imp. (This is a fish with vertical

bars on the body.)
Phoxinopsis broccce (Myers). Characidae. Rio de Janeiro, lji". . 5
Phoxinopsis typicus (Regan). Characidae. Rio de Janeiro, lyi" . . . . 5

Phoxinus phoxinus (Linnaeus). Cyprinidae. Europe. 6" 8

Piar actus nigripinnis (Cope). Characidae. Amazon. 1% u 5

Pimelodella gracilis. Nandidae. La Plata to Orinoco 3

Plancterus kansaz (Garman). Poeciliidae. Kansas. 3^4" 18

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF FISHES 295

Plancterus zebra (Jordan & Gilbert). Poeciliidae. West. U. S. 4" 18

Platypoecilus maculatus Guenther. Poeciliidae, (V.) Mexico. 2^4".
Various varieties have been named ruber, pulcher, niger, im-
maculatus, etc 18

Pcecilia reticulata. See Lebistes.

Poecilia sphenops. See Mollienisia sphen.

Pcecilia unimaculata. See P. vivipara.

Poecilia vivipara Bloch & Schneider. Poeciliidae. (V.) S. America.
3" 18

Pcecilichthys coerueleus (Storer). Rainbow Darter. Percidae. Cen-
tral U. S. 3" 17

Pceciliopsis isthmensis. See Phallichthys pittieri.

Pceciliopsis pittieri. See Phallichthys pitt.

Polyacanthus cupanus. See Macropodus c.

Polyacanthus dayi. See Macropodus cupanus.

Polycentropsis abbreviata Boulenger. Polycentridae. W. Africa. 3" 19

Polycentrus schomburgkii (Mueller & Troschel). Polycentridae.
Guiana & Trinidad. 2" 19

Pristella aubynei Eigenmann. Characidae. Guiana. 2" 5

Pristella riddlei (Meek) . Characidae. Venezuela and Guiana. V/i" 5

Pseudocorynopoma doriae Perugia. Characidae. S. Eastern S. Amer-
ica. 3" S

Pseudoxiphophorus bimaculatus (Heckel). Poeciliidae. (V.)
Centr. America. 4" 18

Pterodiscus levis Eigenmann. Flying Characin, "Gasteropelecus."

Characidae. Amazon. 2" 5

Ptcrophyllum altum Pellegrin. Orinoco River. Not yet imp.

Pterophyllum eimekei Ahl. Cichlidae. Amazon. Diam. 2 l / 2 " 6

Pterophyllwn scalar e (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Cichlidae. Amazon.
Diam. l l / 2 " 6

Pungitius pungitius (Linnaeus). Ten-spined Stickleback. Gasteros-

teidae. Europe, Asia, N. Amer. 3" 9

Pygosteus. See Pungitius.

Puntius. See Barbus.

Pyrrhulina brevis Steindachner. Characidae. Amazon. 2>y 2 " 5

Pyrrhulina filamentosa. Not yet imp. Aq. sp. = Copeina arnoldi.*

Pyrrhulina guttata. See Copeina.

Pyrrhulina rachoviana Myers. Characidae. S. E. So. America. . . 5

Rasbora cephalotcenia (Bleeker). Cyprinidae. E. Indies. 5" 8

Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton Buchanan). Cyprinidae. India. 4" 8

Rasbora heteromorpha Duncker. Cyprinidae. Malay Peninsula. V/2" 8

Rasbora lateristriata elegans (Volz). Cyprinidae. E.Indies. 4"... 8

296 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF FISHES

Ras b or a maculat a Duncker. Cyprinidae. Malay Peninsula. 1".... 8

Rasbora taeniata Ahl. Cyprinidae. Sumatra. y$ 8

Rhamdia sebae. (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Siluridae. S.America. 10" 21
Rhinichthys atronasus (Mitchell). Black-nosed Dace. Cyprinidae.

E. U. S. 3" 8

Rhodeus amarus (Bloch). "Bitterling." Cyprinidae. Europe. 2" 8
Rivulus cylindraceus Poey. Cuban Rivulus. Poeciliidae. Cuba. . . 18

Rivulus dorni Myers. Poeciliidae. Rio de Janeiro, l 1 /^" 18

Rivulus elegans. Not yet imp. Aq. sp. = R. rachovii.
Rivulus flabellicanda (= isthmensis). Not yet imp. Aquarium species
= R. tenuis.*

Rivulus ocellatus Hensel. Poeciliidae. Rio de Janeiro. 2" 18

Rivulus harti Poeciliidae, Trinidad 18

Rivulus poeyi. See R. urophthalmus.

Rivulus punctatus Boulenger. Not yet imp. Aquarium sp. = R. dorni.

Rivulus rachovii Ahl. Poeciliidae. Para. 2^2" 18

Rivulus strigatus Regan. Poeciliidae. Amazon. 1%" 18

Rivulus tenuis (Meek). Poeciliidae. Mexico. 2" 18

Rivulus urophthalmus Guenther. Poeciliidae. Amazon. 2 l /i" 18

Saccobranchus. See Heteropneustes.

Scardinius erythrophthalmus (Linnaeus). Rudd; Pearl Roach. Cy-
prinidae. Europe. 11" 8

Scatophagus argus (Gmelin). Scatophagidae. India, in brackish

water. 3" 20

Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchell). Fallfish. Cyprinidae. E. U. S.

5-10" 8

(V.) Southern Mississippi Valley. 2" 18

Sphcerichthys osphromenoides Canestrini. Anabantidae. E. Ind. 2" . . 2
Spintherobolus. See Phoxinopsis.

Stethapribn innesi Myers. Characidae. Amazon. 3" 5

Stevardia albipinnis. See Corynopoma riisei.

Tetragonopterus argenteus Cuvier. Characidae. S. America. 5" . . 5

Tetragonopterus chalceus Agassiz. Characidae. Brazil and Guiana.

4" 5

Tetragonopterus fasciatus. See Astyanax fasc.
Tetragonopterus guppyi. See Hemibrycon g.
Tetragonopterus maculatus. See Astyanax bimaculatus.
Tetragonopterus ocellifer. See Hemigrammus ocell.

Tetragonopterus rubropictus. See Aphyocharax.

Tetragonopterus rutilus. See Astyanax fasciatus.

Tetragonopterus ulreyi. See Hemigrammus ul.

Tetragonopterus unilineatus. Hemigrammus uni.

Tetraodon jluviatilis Hamilton Buchanan. Swell-fish. Tetraodon-

tidae. India. 2" 23

Thoracocharax securis (Filippi). Characidae. S.America. 2".... 5

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF FISHES 297

Thoracocharax stellatus (Kner). Characidae. Amazons. 2" 5

Tilapia macrocephala. . Cichlidae. W. Africa. 7" 6a

Tinea tinea (Linnaeus). Tench. Cyprinidae. Europe. 12" 8

Trichogaster fasciatus. See Colisa fasc.

Trichogaster labiosus. See Colisa lab.

Trichogaster Ialius. See Colisa lal.

Trichogaster trichopterus (Pallas). 3-Spot Gourami. Anabantidae. 4" 2

Trichopsis vittatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Croaking Gourami.

Trinectes maculatus (Bloch & Schneider). Common sole. Soleidae.

E. N. America, in brackish or fresh water. 6" 22

Umbra limi (Kirtland). Mud-minnow. Umbridae. Centr. U. S. 4" 24
Umbra pygmcea (DeKay). Eastern Mud-minnow. Umbridae. E.

U. S. 4" 24

Valencia hispanica Valenciennes. Poeciliidae. Southern Spain 2" 18
Xiphophorus helleri Heck el. Swordtail. Poeciliidae. (V.) Centr.

Amer. 6" (to tip of sword) 18

Xiphophorus montezumce Jordan and Snyder. Not yet imp. Aq. sp.

(red) is a hybrid betw. Platypoecilus and Xiphophorus.*

Xiphophorus rachovii Regan. Poeciliidae. (V.) Guatemala. 3"
Perhaps a variety of helleri 18

SEE PAGES 237 TO 244 FOR DATA
REGARDING KEY NUMBER REFERENCES

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE

uaria

^g^'CJ^^^

Millions of people get their first knowledge of the wonders of the
water world in public aquaria. These institutions add immensely to
popular education. Since most of them now have good collections of
the smaller species available for the home (tropicals and goldfish) they
cannot fail to introduce many a person to the pleasures of aquarium-
keeping.

The magnetic attraction of water life is again proven (if need be)
by the fact that the Aquarium at Battery Park in New York has, year
after year, until recently, recorded the largest attendance of any institu-
tion or place of amusement in the world, the present approximate figures
being about 7,000 visitors per day. This has only been exceeded by the
Shedd Aquarium in Chicago, where the average attendance since ita
opening in June, 1930, has averaged more than 12,000 per day. Admis-
sion is charged on four days per week.

Chicago is the only city in our country which is successfully sup-
porting two first-class public aquaria— the Lincoln Park and the Shedd,
the latter being the most modern in the world today. It was erected
at a cost of $3,000,000 for the buildings and equipment alone. Sea water
from Key West for a single filling costs about $39,000. Needless to say,
inland aquaria take precious care of their marine water by filtering,
aeration and laboratory tests. The success they achieve in this respect
is remarkable. Even coastwise aquaria must take care of their marine
water, for they have to go out several miles to get an unpolluted supply.

In addition to various methods of purification it is necessary for
most public aquaria to have plants for heating, refrigerating and storing
water. Casual visitors have not the least idea of the "works" in back
of the scene arranged for their pleasure and benefit, but those especially
interested can see them on request.

The securing and transporting of specimens of fishes also entails
difficulties, dangers and disappointments which can hardly be appreci-

Fig. 207. Fairmount Park Aquarium, Philadelphia

Beautifully situated on the River Schuylkill and extending from extreme left to
right of the photograph, this is the world's longest aquarium. The aquarium proper
is within the granite walls rising from the river. Six buildings topping it are executive
offices, pavilions and a research laboratory. The Art Museum harmoniously dominates
the background.

Fig. 208. Interior, Battery Park Aquarium, New York
Originally built in 1S07 as a fort, it was converted in lSQo to a public aquarium,
for which it is splendidly qualified and located. It is our oldest and most famous
aquarium. Completely circling it is a double tier of marine and fresh water tanks,
while on the main floor numerous small aquaria, large pools and troughs contain house-
hold aquarium fishes, large aquatic and amphibian animals, a fish hatchery and other
interesting natural historv exhibits.

2Q9

Fig. 299. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago
This is the newest public aquarium in America. It is the gift of the late John G
Shedd. The building and equipment cost about S3 .000.000. Annual maintenance, ap-
proximately S200,000. It contains salt and fresh water fishes and has a fine collection
of ''tropicals." The size of the structure mav be judged bv comDarison with the auto-
mobiles in the photograph. Daily attendance averases over 12.000.

jMg-

r

t «■

Fig. 300. Steinhart Aquarium, San Francisco
This aquarium has a striking collection of bizarre, gaudy and weird fishes mainly
from Hawaiian waters. The photograph does not do justice to the size of the building,
nor give any idea of the crowds which usually throng the institution. An artistically
arranged swamp is in the vestibule room, populated with appropriate animals, large
and small.

300

PUBLIC AQUARIA 301

ated. Fortunately politics plays little part in the appointment of per-
sonnel in these institutions. They are for the most part operated by
men who have a passion for this particular work.

American cities having public aquaria are Boston, Chicago (2),
Detroit, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco and Wash-
ington. In other countries they are maintained at Amsterdam, Hol-
land; Antwerp, Belgium; Berlin, Germany; Blackpool, England; Frank-
furt, Germany; Leipzig, Germany; Honolulu, Hawaii; Lisbon, Portugal;
London, England; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (2); Monaco; Sidney, Aus-
tralia; Naples, Italy; Paris, France and Plymouth, England.

Of equal importance with the care of water in large aquaria (par-
ticularly marine) is the subject of feeding. Virtually all marine fishes
are carnivorous, and while the flesh of warm-blooded animals may be
used to some extent, it is not natural, so it becomes necessary to secure
a liberal supply of clams, crabs, shrimp, small fish, worms, etc. While
this involves a great deal of effort, there is no doubt that fishes respond
very perceptibly to the benefits of natural food.

It will be recalled that when Benjamin Franklin was a young man
he ate no meat, endeavoring to follow the commandment "Thou shalt
not kill," but when he became acquainted with the universal cannibalism
of the sea he decided it would be wise to follow nature's plan of "big
fish eat little fish," and thenceforth gave up vegetarianism.

In most cities with public aquaria it is a regular practice with some
schools to take classes of students to observe the marvels of fish life.

Indeed the public aquarium is a place in which we all can ponder.
The impossible little Box Fish, unbelievably propelled by tiny trans-
parent fins ; fantastic Sea-ravens with beady eyes and enormous mouths
ready to swallow victims as large as themselves ; Angel Fish whose colors
challenge our best analines; Gars perfectly poised to pounce on their
little victims; fish with stony, sinister little blue eyes; Squirrel Fish
with large, limpid eyes; fish with short, powerful jaws for crushing
shells; File Fish, as flat as a pancake, a mere shrunken skeleton cov-
ered with skin; Flounders concealed in the sand (only their protruding
eyes showing) awaiting some unsuspecting victim ; droll little Sea-horses
and fish that attach themselves to other fish for a free ride. These and
hundreds of other wonder-provoking specimens freshly awaken us to the
existence of lives so vastly different from our own, and we ponder on
how they fit into the Pattern of Things, and possibly how we would
appear to them, were the conditions reversed!

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO

In Short

$9 C4

Feed sparingly.

Don't overcrowd.

Share your knowledge.

Treat sick fishes promptly.

Occasionally re-read chapter one.

Don't start with expensive fishes.

Remember coal gas poisons fishes.

Don't keep large and small fishes together.

Better not try to move large filled aquaria.

Be sure to replace covers on tropical aquaria.

Always sterilize net after lifting a diseased fish.

Don't leave fishes outdoors until frost threatens.

Don't use coarse nets. Brussels netting is better.

Fishes enjoy a change of food as much as you do.

If you sell your surplus stock get a fair price for it.

Thoroughly cleanse plants before introducing them.

Don't heat with oil stoves if anything else can be had.

Don't entrust the feeding to others if it can be avoided.

It is well to remember that some cats are good fishermen.

It is highly important to quickly remove unconsumed food.

Don't as a beginner, disregard the greater experience of others.

Don't assume that ordinary artificial light is of benefit to plants.

Muddy water will probably stop an aquarium leak in a few days.

Goldfishes cannot be expected to grow much in a small aquarium.

Don't slide all-glass aquaria. Scratches may cause them to crack.

Be careful of the plants in catching a fish. A little patience will repay.

Don't overwork the aquarium hobby. It will last longer in moderation.

Temperature changes of water, either higher or lower, must never be

sudden.
Be sure to disinfect an aquarium where there has been a contagious

disease.

IN SHORT 303

Don't forget to allow freshly-drawn water to stand before use, especially
in winter.

Don't depend upon running water, but balance your aquarium with proper
conditions.

Safety requires a week's quarantine before placing new fishes in with
your stock.

Take occasion, once in a while, to give your fishes a meal of chopped
earthworms.

First look through a catch of daphnia for enemies before feeding them
to the fishes.

Don't treat diseased fishes with salt water in an aquarium containing
plants or snails.

Don't be stingy, but give away a few interesting fishes to those who might
become fanciers.

Don't use aquatic plants at all unless the aquarium is near a window
with plenty of light.

Don't suppose that a few plants can do much water-purifying. A liberal
number of them is needed.

Don't, as a beginner, purchase aVgoldfish with very long fin development.
It is apt to be past its prime.

Don't attempt to keep aquatic plants in a very subdued light. They
cannot prosper and only do harm.

Even though goldfishes and certain tropicals get along together, it is better
taste to keep them in separate aquaria.

If your home must be shut for several days, don't worry about the fish
starving. They will be all right if the temperature is correct.

Don't resort at once to chemical treatment of a fish a little out of condi-
tion. A change of food or of aquarium may be all that is needed.

Don't overlook the great possibilities of the native fish aquarium, both
freshwater and marine. The terrarium, too, is well worthy of at-
tention.

Don't keep fishes in galvanized iron or zinc receptacles, nor have copper or
brass in contact with aquarium water. Unseasoned wood is bad;
unseasoned concrete, fatal.

If goldfish are to be brought indoors for the winter, wait for cool, but
not cold, weather. A great change in temperature, even when gradu-
ated over several days, is injurious. If possible, fill the aquarium
with the same water they had outdoors.

ILLUSTRATIONS AND THEIR SOURCES

Frontispiece. Veiltail Goldfish. Bred by Thomas Ayling and owned successively by
Franklin Barrett and Otis T. Gregg. Photograph from Life by the Author.

End Papers. Original Drawing by Franklin Barrett.

Figure Page

1. Deep Aquarium. Drawn by Wm. L. Bockius 7

2. Shallow Aquarium. Drawn by Wm. L. Bockius 7

3. Ordinary Type Fish-Globe. Drawn by Wm. L. Bockius 9

4. Flattened Globe. Drawn by Wm. L. Bockius 9

5. Dish-shape Globe. Drawn by Wm. L. Bockius 9

6. Keystone Globe. Drawn by Wm. L. Bockius 11

7. African Snail. Drawn from Life by John A. Bauer , 18

8. Ramshorn Snail. Drawn from Life by John A. Bauer 18

9. Japanese Snail. Drawn from Life by John A. Bauer 18

10. Freshwater Mussel. Drawn from Life by Evelyn B. Innes 20

11. Weatherfish. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 20

12. Plant Roots. Drawn by the Author 25

13. Sagittaria natans. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 29

14. Giant Sagittaria. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 30

15. Ludwigia. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 31

16. Sagittaria subulata. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 31

17. Vallisneria spiralis. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 33

18. Giant Vallisneria. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 35

19. Cabomba. Traced from Photograph by the Author 37

20. Giant Anacharis. Drawn by Helen Winchester 37

21. Wild Anacharis. Drawn by Helen Winchester 38

22. Myriophyllum. Drawn by Helen Winchester 40

23. Bladderwort. Drawn by Helen Winchester 40

24. Hair Grass. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 41

25. Potamogeton densus. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 42

26. Nitella gracilis. Drawn by Helen Winchester 42

27. Cultivated Ludwigia. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 44

28. Southern Spatterdock. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 45

29. Japanese Spatterdock. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 46

30. Quillwort. Drawn by W. A. Poyser 47

31. Fontinalis gracilis. Drawn by Mary Weber 48

32. Fontinalis antipyretica. Drawn from Life by Mary Weber 48

33. Herpestis. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 50

34. Spring Starwort. Drawn by Helen Winchester 50

35. Madagascar Lace Plant. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 51

36. Mare's Tail. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 52

37. Moneywort. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 52

38. Cryptocoryne. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 53

39. Heteranthera. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 54

40. Azolla. Drawn by Helen Winchester 55

41. Crystalwort. Drawn by Helen Winchester 55

42. Duckweed. Drawn by Helen Winchester 55

43. Water Poppy. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 55

44. Salvinia. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 56

45. Trianea. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 56

ILLUSTRATIONS AND THEIR SOURCES 305

Figure Page

46. Frogbit. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 57

47. Water Lettuce. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 58

48. Water Fern. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 59

49. Water Chestnut. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 59

50. Water Hyacinth. Photograph by the Author 61

51. Water Snowflake. Photograph by the Author 62

52. Water Lily. Courtesy of Henry A. Dreer Company 63

53. Lotus. Courtesy of Henry A. Dreer Company 64

54. Aquatic Cutworm. Drawn from Life by Henry P. Schwing 66

55. Daphnia 73

56. Mosquito Larva. After Howard 73

57. Cyclops 73

58. Cypris 73

59. Carrying Case and Live-Food Trays 75

60. Bloodworm. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 78

61. Tubifex Worms. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 78

62-64. Rotifers. Drawn from Life by Dr. F. J. Myers 79

65. Freshwater Shrimp. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 79

66. White Worm Feeder. Drawn by Wm. L. Bockius 80

67. Daphnia. Photo-micrograph by Chauncey Juday 81

68. Breeding Establishment. Photograph by George Seip 82

69. Fish With Fungus. Drawn from Life by Franklin Barrett 86

70. Fish Louse. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 92

71. Water Tiger. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 96

72. Spearmouth. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 97

73. Dragon Fly. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 97

74. Dragon Fly Larva. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 97

75. Diving Beetle. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 98

76. Water Scavenger Beetle. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 98

77. Water Strider. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 99

78 and 79. Giant Water Bugs. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 99

80. Water Scorpion. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 100

81 and 82. Whirligig Beetle. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 100

83. Water Boatman. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 100

84. Water Mite. Drawn from Life by Helen Winchester 101

85. Hydra. Drawn from Life by Evelyn B. Innes 101

86. Cut in Angle Brass. Drawn by John A. Bauer 105

87. Aquarium Frame and Wooden Form. Drawn by John A. Bauer 105

88. Wooden Tank. Drawn by John A. Bauer 110

89. Concrete Aquarium (In Colors). Photograph by the Author Ill

90. Seining for Black-Banded Sunfishes. Photograph by the Author 112

91. Simple Concrete Pool, Drawn by Lewis M. Dorsey, Jr 114

92. Strong Concrete Pool, Drawn by Lewis M. Dorsey, Jr 115

93. Straight-side Raised Concrete Pool. Photograph by the Author 117

94. Straight-side Raised Concrete Pool in Use. Photograph by the Author 117

95. Concrete Pool and Bog. Photograph by the Author 118

96. Fish Nets. Drawn by Andrew Koler 119

97. Razor-Blade Scraper. Drawn by Andrew Koler 120

98. Aquarium Forceps. Drawn by John A. Bauer 120

99. Planting Stick. Drawn by John A. Bauer 121

100. Aquarium Scissors. Drawn by John A. Bauer 121

101. Funnel Trap for Live-Bearers. Drawn by John A. Bauer 122

102. Aquarium Trap for Live Bearers. Drawn by John A. Bauer 122

103. Glass Breeding-Cage. Drawn by Wm. L. Bockius 123

104. Mat of Glass Bars. Drawn by Wm. L. Bockius 124

105. Spawning Net. Drawn by John A. Bauer 124

106. Water Circulation Apparatus. Drawn by the Author 125

107. Fish Carrying Case. Drawn by John A. Bauer 127

108. Glass Feeding Ring. Drawn by John A. Bauer 127

109. Fourteen Figures of Microscopic Life in Water. Drawn by Dr. F. J. Myers. . 129

306 ILLUSTRATIONS AND THEIR SOURCES

Figure Page

110. Young Calico Telescope Goldfish (In Colors). Fish Owned by C. C. Vowinkel.

Photograph from Life by the Author 131

111. Photographing Aquarium. Photograph by the Author 132

112. Photographing Apparatus. Drawn by John A. Bauer 134

113. Sea Horse. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 140

114. Swamp Aquarium. After German Print 143

US. Aqua-Terrarium. After German Print 145

115a. Pine-tree Lizard. Photograph from Life by the Author 146

116. Skink. Photograph from Life by the Author 146

117. Geographic Turtles. Photograph from Life by the Author 147

118. Soft-Shelled Turtle. Photograph from Life by the Author 147

119. American Chameleon (In Colors). Photograph from Life by the Author 143

120. Section of Hand Net. Drawn by John A. Bauer 152

121. Southern Minnow. Photograph from Life by the Author 157

122. Rainbow Darter. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 157

123. Orange-Spotted Sunfish. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author. . 158

124. Blue Spot Sunfish. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 158

125 and 126. Silverfin. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 159

127. Killifish. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 160

128. Black-Banded Sunfish. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author. . 160

129. Golden Ide. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 161

130. Redfin. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 161

131. Chub Sucker. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 162

132. Shiner. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 162

133. Colored Carp. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 163

134. Mud Trout. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 163

135. Black-Headed Minnow. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author. . 164

136. Pearl Roach. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 164

137. Red-Bellied Dace. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 166

138. Rosy-Sided Dace. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 166

139. Black-Nosed Dace. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 167

140. Sticklebacks. Drawn from Life by Franklin Barrett 163

141. Catfish. After Jordan and Evermann 169

142. Golden Orfe. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 169

143. Golden Tench. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 170

144. Sole. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 171

145. Single-Tail Goldfish. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 175

146. Tripod-Tail Goldfish. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 175

147. Web-Tail Goldfish. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 175

148. Double-Tail Goldfish. Drawn by Franklin Barrett 175

149. Common Goldfish. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 177

150. Comet Goldfish. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 178

151. Shubunkin Goldfish. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 178

152. Fantail Goldfish. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 179

153. Japanese Fringetail Goldfish. After Life Sketch by Franklin Barrett 180

154. Nymph Goldfish. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 181

155. Chinese Telescope Goldfish. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 182

156. Chinese Scaleless Telescope Goldfish. Drawn by Henry P. Schwing 183

157. Ideal Veiltail Calico Telescope Goldfish. Drawn by Henry W. Fowler 184

158. Chinese Moor Goldfish. Drawn by Henry W. Fowler 185

159. Celestial Goldfish (Dorsal View). Drawn by Henry W. Fowler 186

159. Celestial Goldfish (Dorsal View). Drawn by Henry W. Fowler 186

161. Oranda Goldfish. Drawn from Life by Henry W. Fowler 188

162. Precociously Developed Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author.... 189

163. Strong Young Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 189

164. Aquarium Exhibition, Philadelphia. Photograph by the Author 190

165. Prize-winning Scaleless Telescope Goldfish. Photograph from Life by Author. . 191
166a and 166b. Medal, Aquarium Society of Philadelphia. Photograph by Author. . 192

167. Telescopic-eyed Shiner. Photograph from Life by the Author 192

167a. Perfect Shubunkins. Photographed in Natural Colors 192a

168. Comet Goldfish (Diagram). Drawn by Franklin Barrett 195

169. Nymph Goldfish (Diagram). Drawn by Franklin Barrett 195

ILLUSTRA TIONS AND THEIR SOURCES 307

Figure Page

170. Veiltail Goldfish (Diagram). Drawn by Franklin Barrett 195

171. Ribbontail Goldfish (Diagram). Drawn by Franklin Barrett 195

172. Veiltail Telescope Goldfish (Diagram). Drawn by Franklin Barrett 195

173. Oranda Veiltail Goldfish (Diagram). Drawn by Franklin Barrett 195

174. Lionhead Goldfish (Diagram). Drawn by Franklin Barrett 196

175. Celestial Goldfish (Diagram). Drawn by Franklin Barrett 196

176. Cut-out Tail Goldfish (Diagram). Drawn by Franklin Barrett 196

177. Veiltail Goldfish (Diagram) . Drawn by Franklin Barrett 196

178. Common Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 201

179. Fantail Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 201

180. Scaleless Comet Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 202

181. High-grade Commercial Fantail Goldfish. Photograph from Life by Author. . 202

182. Celestial Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 203

183. Veiltail Moor Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 203

184 and 185. Lionhead Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 204

186. Breeding Female Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 209

187. Breeding Male Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 209

188. Goldfishes Spawning. Photograph from Life by the Author 210

189. Goldfish Eggs on Plants. Photograph from Life by the Author 211

190. Goldfish Eggs, Three Days Old. Photograph from Life by the Author 212

191-196. Development of Goldfish Eggs. Drawn under Microscopical Observations

by Dr. F. J. Myers 212

197 and 198. Goldfish Fry. Drawn from Life under Microscopical Observations

by Dr. F. J. Myers 212

199. Newly Hatched Goldfishes. Photograph from Life by the Author 213

200. Goldfishes at Eighteen Days. Photograph from Life by the Author 213

201. Goldfishes at Six Weeks. Photograph from Life by the Author 214

202. Goldfishes at Twelve Weeks. Photograph from Life by the Author 214

203. Adult Telescope Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 215

204. Adult Scaleless Veiltail Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 215

205. Adult Oranda Goldfish. Photograph from Life by the Author 216

206. Rearing Ponds for Fancy Goldfish. Photograph by Alfred C. Bliss 225

206a. Live Boxes. Photograph by the Author 225

207. Breeding Ponds With Boarded Edges. Photograph by the Author 226

207a. Egg Nests. Photograph by the Author 226

208. Kitchen on a Modern Goldfish Farm. Photograph by the Author 227

208a. Pantry on a Large, Fancy Goldfish Farm. Photograph by the Author 227

208b. Sorting Common Goldfish. Photograph by the Author 228

208c. Japanese Grading Fancy Goldfish. Photograph by the Author 228

209-214. Tropical Aquarium Heaters 231

215a. Hyphessobrycon rosaceus. Natural color photograph by the Author 236a

215. Gas Thermostat 233

216. F undid opanch ax caeruleus (Blue Gularis). Photograph from Life in natural

colors by the Author. Fish owned by Joseph E. Bausman 245

217. Fundulopanchax bivittatum. After German Illustration 246

218. Fundulus chrysotus. Owned by J. L. Troemner. Photograph from Life by

the Author 246

219. Rivulus ocellatus. Photograph by the Author 247

220. Rivulus tenuis. Photograph by the Author 247

221. Rivulus rachovi. Photograph by the Author 247

222. Rivulus harti. Photograph by the Author 248

223. Chriopeops goodei. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 248

224. Jordanella floridae. Owned by J. L. Troemner. Photograph from Life by

the Author 249

225. Cynolebias bellotti. After German Print 249

226. Epiplatys chaperi. Photograph by the Author 250

227. Pachypanchax playfairii. Photograph by the Author 250

228 and 229. Panchax lineatus. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 251

230. Panchax panchax. Photograph by the Author 252

231. Aphyosemion australe. Fish Owned and Photographed from Life by Author. . 252

232. Mollienisia latipinna (male and female). Owned and Photographed from Life

by the Author 253

308 ILLUSTRATIONS AND THEIR SOURCES

Figure Page

233. Platypoecilus maculatus niger. Photograph by the Author 254

234. Mollienisia latipinna. Owned and Photographed by the Author 254

235. Platypoecilius maculatus. Photograph from Life by the Author 254

235a. Mollienisia latipinna (golden). Natural color photograph by the Author 254a

236. Lebistes reticulatus. After German Illustration 255

237. Gambusia affinis. Fishes Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 2S5

238. Parents of Hybrids (Seven Figures). Fishes Owned by the Author and Photo-

graphed from Life 256

239. Red Hybrids (male and female). Owned and Photographed from Life by

the Author 257

240. Mollienisia species. After German Illustration 258

241. Belonesox belizanus. After German Illustration 258

242. Croaking Gourami. After German Illustration 259

243. Betta splendens (Cambodia). Photograph by the Author 260

244. Betta splendens (Veiltail). Photograph by the Author 261

245. Macropodus cupanus dayi. After German Illustration 261

246. Three-Spot Gourami. Photograph from Life by the Author 262

247. Giant Gourami. Owned by Joseph E. Bausman. Photograph from Life by

the Author 262

248. Dwarf Gourami. Owned by Joseph E. Bausman. Photograph from Life by

the Author 263

249. Paradise Fish. Owned by Franklin Barrett. Photograph from Life by Author 263

250. Roundtail Paradise Fish. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 263

251. Channa asiatica. Owned and Photographed from Life by Author 264

252. Climbing Perch. Owned by Louis Burk. Photograph from Life by Author. . 264

253. Pterophyllum scalare. Owned by Louis Burk. Photograph from Life by Author 265

254. Cichlasoma Jestivum. Photograph by the Author 266

255. Cichlasoma severum. Photograph by the Author 266

256. Cichlasoma jacetum, or Chanchito 267

257. Etroplus maculatus. Photograph by the Author 267

258. Hemichromis bitnaculatus, or Jewel Fish 267

259. JEquidens latijrons. Owned by Franklin Barrett. Photograph from Life by

the Author 268

260. Mquidens portalegrensis. Photograph from Life by the Author 268

261. Cichlasoma biocellatum, or Jack Dempsey. Photograph from Life from Fish

Owned by Author 269

262. Geophagus braziliensis. Photograph by the Author 269

263. Mquidens curviceps. Owned by Franklin Barrett. Photograph from Life by

the Author 270

264. Haplochromis multicolor, or Mouthbreeder 270

265. Tilapia macrocephala. Photograph from Life by the Author 271

266. Ctenobrycon spilurus. Owned by J. L. Troemner. Photograph from Life by

the Author 271

267. Pristella riddlei. Photograph by the Author 272

268. Copeina guttata. Owned by J. L. Troemner. Photograph from Life by Author 272

269. Hyphessobrycon flammeus. Photograph by the Author 273

270. Aphyocharax rubripinnis. Photograph by the Author 273

271. Mimagoniates barberi. Photograph by the Author 274

272. Moenkhausia oligolepis. Photograph by the Author 274

273a. Mollienisia sphenops. Natural color photograph by the Author 274a

273. Ckaricidium rachovi. Photograph by the Author 274

274. Rasbora heteramorpha. Photograph by Author 275

275. Danio malabaricus. After German Illustration 275

276. Brachydanio nigrojasciatus. Photograph by the Author 276

277. Brachydanio rerio. After German Illustration 276

278. Brachydanio albolineatus. Owned and Photographed by the Author 276

279 and 280. Fundulus notti. Photograph by the Author 277

281. Barbus everetti. Photograph by the Author 277

282. Barbus semifasciolatus. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author.. 278

283. Barbus conchonius. Owned and Photographed from Life by the Author 278

284. Ambassis ranga. Photograph by the Author 279

285. Butterfly Fish. Owned by J. L. Troemner. Photograph from Life by Author 279

ILLUSTRATIONS AND THEIR SOURCES 309

T - , ■ - ■■ - — ■ ■-- '• .-■- — ■- ... , ,., ' ,-■■■■.-..,■■ ■ ,

Figure Page

286. Polycentrus schomburgki. Photograph by the Author 280

287. Scatophagus argus. Photograph by the Author 280

288. Badis badis. Photograph by the Author 281

289. Tetraodon fluviatilis. Owned by Franklin Barrett. Photograph from Life by

the Author 281

290. Melanotaenia nigrans. Photograph by the Author 282

291. Malaptcrurus clcctricus. After German Print 282

292. Pimrtodclla gracilis. Photograph by the Author 283

293. Cory dor as undulatus. Photograph by the Author 283

294. Hypostomus species. Owned by J. L. Troemner. Photograph from Life by

the Author 283

295. Dormitator macidatus. Photograph by the Author 284

296. Euchoristopxis barbarus. After German Print 284

296a. Notropis lutrensis. Natural color photograph by the Author 284a

297. Fairmount Park Aquarium, Philadelphia. Photograph by the Author 299

298. Interior, Battery Park Aquarium, New York. Photograph by Elwin R.

Sanborn 299

299. Shedd Aquarium, Chicago 200

300. Steinhart Aquarium, San Francisco 300

A Bibliography usually undertakes to present a general outline of the
literature on a subject, and to especially include the sources from which
the author has drawn. No such attempt is made here. Except for a few
of the early outstanding classics on aquarium study we mention only
works, which, in our opinion, are likely to be of interest to our readers,
and which there is a reasonable chance of procuring.

European interest in the aquarium had a sudden awakening in about
1850, and for some years a flood of books followed. These were much
alike and naturally were written out of a considerable inexperience. One
of those authors (Arthur M. Edwards in "Life Beneath the Waters,"
New York, 1858) in setting forth his standing as a competent authority
submits the fact that he has kept an aquarium for two years! Pages 91
and 92 contain statements too interesting to pass by unquoted:

"Sixty degrees of Fahrenheit's scale is about as high as we should
allow the aquarium temperature to rise." If in danger of passing this
point it is recommended to "wrap the aquarium in coarse cloth, kept
saturated with water." As to white fungus disease, which seems to have
been known as "the slime," the author directs that the fish be placed
in "a pail full of fresh water and throw over it a handfull of silver sand,
so that it may fall on the skin of the fish. It will cause it to rub itself
and entirely eradicate the slime without injurying the fish," followed
by the fatal admission "I have lost many gold-fish from this disease."
Again we are told "Sometimes the tail becomes coated with a fungoid
growth. The tail should be removed at once with a pair of fine scissors."

On the other hand Robert Warrington, an Englishman, as far back
as 1850 set forth, in papers before The Chemistry Society and in the
"Annals and Magazine of Natural History," the correct principles of the
"balanced aquarium."

Aquarium keeping at that period seems to have been more of a fad
than a hobby, and, with its passing, the tide of books subsided considera-
bly. The subject of course continued to develop among scientific in-
vestigators, but the literature experienced no great advance until towards
the close of the century, coincident with the importation of tropical fishes
and highly developed gold-fishes. Innumerable aquarium societies sprung
up in Europe, especially in Germany, and it is to their support and in-
fluence that we owe much of our modern literature on the subject.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

311

Any readers desiring to consult a more elaborate bibliography are
referred to that most remarkable work, "A Bibliography of Fishes/' by
Bashford Dean, published in three volumes by The American Museum
of Natural History in New York. For the convenience of our readers
we have arranged to sell any of the listed books showing prices.
Arderon, F.R.S., William

Arnold, Augusta F.

Bade, Dr. E.

Bade, Dr. E.

Bade, Dr. E.

Bade, Dr. E.

Bade, Dr. E.

Bade, Dr. E.

Bade, Dr. E.

Bateman, Rev. Gregory C.

Bateman, Rev. Gregory C.
Beebe, William

Cassino, Samuel

Comstock, A. B.

Eggeling, Otto

and
Ehrenberg, Frederick
Embody, Geo. C.

On Keeping of Small Fish in Glass Jars; and of an easy method

of catching fish.
Philosophical Transactions, No. 44, p. 23-27. London 1747.

(First article on the aquarium).

The Sea Beach at Ebb Tide. The Century Co., New York, 1901.

Das Seewasser Aquarium. $1.50.

Das Susswasser Aquarium. Bound, $8.15; not bound, $7.00.

Der Schleierschwanz und der Teleskopschleierschwanz.

Die auslandischen Aquarienfische. $1.50.

Die kunstliche Fischzucht. 80 cents.

Praxis der Aquarienkunde. $1.50.

Praxis der Terrarienkunde. $1.50.

Freshwater Aquaria, Their Construction, Arrangement, Etc.

London "The Bazaar, Exchange & Mart Office." 1925.

The Vivarium. Gill, London, 1897.

The Arcturus Adventure: An Account of the New York Zoo-
logical Society's First Oceanographic Expedition.

Putnam, New York, 1926.

Edinburgh. McFarlane & Erskine. 1885.

Naturalists' Directory. Salem, Mass. A comprehensive list ol
about 4,500 names of scientists, collectors, etc. Tells their
specialties and whether they exchange, sell or buy speci-
mens. (A good idea).

Handbook of Nature Study. $4.00.

(A textbook for the beginner in the study of fishes, insects,
birds, plants, etc.)

The Fresh-Water Aquarium and Its Inhabitants.
Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1908.

Fearnow, E. C.
Gluck

Gosse, P. H.
Harring and Myers
Holder, Chas. Frederick

Innes, Wm. T.
Innes, Wm. T.

Jonstonus, M.D.

The Fish Notebook (Nature Notebook Series).
Comstock Pub. Co., Ithaca, N. Y.
Goldfish; Their Care in Small Aquaria.
Washington, Government Printing Office. 1923.
Biologische und morphologische Untersuchungen uber Wasser
und Sumpfgewachse. (Four parts).

Gustav Fischer. Jena, 1924. (The standard work on aquatic

plants, but has not been translated).
The Aquarium: An Unveiling of the Wonders of the Deep Sea.
London, 1856.

The Rotifera of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin, 1924-26.
(Describes most of the known Rotifera of the world).

Method of Studying the Life History of Fishes; Also Plan for

an Educational Exhibit of Fishes.
Government Printing Office, Washington, 1910.
The Modern Aquarium. $1.00.
Innes Publishing Co., Philadelphia
Exotic Aquarium Fishes, 1935, $5.00
Innes Publishing Co., Philadelphia
The Aquarium, a monthly magazine, $2.00 yearly
Innes Publishing Co., Philadelphia
JohannesDe Piscibus. Amsterdam, 1657. (First natural history on fishes) .

312

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jordan and Evermann
Kendall, William C.

Krefft, P.

La Gorce, John Oliver

Leonhardt, E. E.
Mather, Frederick

Matsubara, S.

Mellen, Ida M.
Mellen & Lanier

Morgan, Alfred

Morgan, Ann Haven

Mulertt, Hugo

Myers, George S.

Needham and Lloyd
Norman, J. R.

Osburn, Raymond C.

Peters, C. H.

Ramsey, L. W.
and
Lawrence, Chas. H.
Reuter, Dr. Fritz

Rossmassler, E. A.
Ryder, John A.

Samuel, Mark

Sauvigny

Seal, William P.

Smith, Eugene
Smith, Hugh M.
Stead, David G.
Stoye, F. H.
Stranahan, J. J.
Townsend, Chas.
Ward, Lester F.
Ward and Whipple

The Fishes of North and Middle America. 1S96.
Fresh-Water Crustacea as Food for Young Fishes.
U S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, 1921.
Das Terrarium. Fritz 'Pfennigstorff, Berlin, 1907.
Book of Fishes.

National Geographic Society, Washington, 1924.
Das Susswasser-Aquarium. Strecker & Scroeder, Stuttgart, 1923.
Fishes Which Can Live in Both Salt and Fresh-Water. Trans-
actions of American Fish Cultural Ass'n, N. Y., 18S1.
Goldfish and Their Culture in Japan.

Proceedings of the Fourth International Fishery Congress,
Washington (1908). 1909.
Fishes in the Home. $2.00.

1000 Questions Answered About Your Aquarium, $3.00
Dodd, Mead & Co., or through Innes Publishing Co., Phila.
An Aquarium Book for Boys and Girls, $2.50
Charles Scribner's Sons, or through
Innes Publishing Co., Philadelphia

Field Book of Ponds and Streams. Putnams, N. Y., 1930. $3.50.
(An excellent guide to the general study of aquatic life.)
The Goldfish and Its Systematic Culture.
Clarke, Cincinnati, 1883.
The Aquarium and Its Denizens.
A. M. Roth, World Bldg., Baltimore, Md.
Life in Inland Waters.
A History of Fishes, $7.00
Ernest Benn, Ltd., London
The Care of Home Aquaria.
New York, New York Zoological Society, 1914.
Life and Love in the Aquarium, $3.00
Through Innes Publishing Co., Philadelphia
Garden Pools. 1930. $2.50.
(One of the best books on water gardening.)
Through Innes Publishing Co., Philadelphia
Die fremdlandischen Zierfische.
J. E. G. Wegner, Stuttgart, Germany, 1913.
Het Zoetwater-Aquarium. Leyden, 1872.
The Inheritance of Modifications due to Disturbances of the

Early Stages of Development, especially in the Japanese

Domesticated Races of Gold-Carp.
Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila., 1S93.
The Amateur Aquarist. The Baker & Taylor Co., N. Y., 1894.
Histoire Naturelle des Dorades de la Chine. 1780.
The Aquarium: A Brief Exposition of Its Principles and

Management.
Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries. Vol. y., Washington, 1889.
The Home Aquarium and How to Care For it.
New York, Dutton & Co., 1902.
Japanese Goldfish, Their Varieties and Cultivation.
Washington, W. F. Roberts Co., 1909.
The Aquarium in Australia.

Aquarium Society of New South Wales, Sydney, 1911.
Tropical Fish for the Home, Their Care and Propagation, $4.00
Through Innes Publishing Co., Philadelphia
Fish Culture on the Farm.

Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, N. Y., 1903.
The Cultivation of Fishes in Natural and Artificial Ponds.
Report of the New York Zoological Society. New York, 1904
Marsh and Aquatic Plants of Northern United States.
Bulletin of Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. 3, Washington, 1883.
Freshwater Biology. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 191S. $7.

CROSS INDEX

Page

Abramis crysoleucas 154, *162

Acara thayeri *270

Acid-Alkali Tests 95

JEquidens curviceps *270

JEquidens latifrons *26S

Mquidens porlalegrensis *26S

Oration 22, 135, 234

Alphabetical List of Fishes 285

Algae 22

Aluminum 234

Ambassis lata *2 79

Ammonia Treatment 84

Amy da spinijera *147

Anabas testudineus *264

Anacharis 36, *37, *3S

Anemones 135

Animal Parasites 91

Anolis carolinensis *148

Answer 24

Apliyocharax rubripinnis *273

Aphyosemion australe *252

Aphyosemion callurium 252

Appliances 119

Aquarium Cements 109

Aquarium Construction 103

Aquarium Covers 21

Aquarium Exhibition *190

Aquarium Filter 125

Aquarium Leaks 108

Aquarium Management 5

Aqua-terraria 144

Aqua-terrarium *145

Aquatic Cutworm *66

Aquatic Plants 25

Azolla 55, *56

Back Swimmer 100

Badis badis *2S1

Balanced Aquarium 13

Barbus conchonius *278

Barbus everetti *277

Barbus semijasciolatus *278

Battery Park Aquarium *299

Belonesox belizanus *258

Betta splendens (Cambodia) *260

Betta splendens (Veiltail) *261

Bibliography 310

Black-banded Sunfish *160

Black Fungus 87

Black-headed Minnow . . . . *164

Black-nosed Dace *167

Bladderwort 40

Blood Worms *7S

Blue Algs 23

Blue Gularis (in colors) *245

Blue-Spot Sunhsh *158

Bog Garden *113

Page

Bog Plants 66

Boiled Water 12

Brachydanio albolinealus *276

Brachydanio nigrojasciatus *276

Brachydanio rerio *276

Brass 15, 105, 123

Breeding Age 208

Breeding Establishment *82, 220

Breeding Female (Goldfish) *209

Breeding Goldfishes 198, 223

Breeding Habits, Tropical Fishes.... 237

Breeding Male (Goldfish) *209

Breeding Methods 221

Breeding Ponds *226

Breeding Tropicals Commercially.... 229

Butterfly Fish *279

Cabomba 36, *37

Calico Goldfish *131

Care Fish Nets 17

Carp 155, *163

Catfish *169

Celestial Goldfish *186, *203

Cement Pool 117, *118

Cements (for aquaria) 109

Ceratophyllum 40

Chastodon 156, *160

Chameleon *148

Chanchito *267

Changing Water 12

Channa asiatica *264

Characidium rachovi *274

Chemical Changes in Water 16

Chiropcops goodei *248

Chlorine 12

Chore Ball 120

Chub Sucker *162, 165

Cichlasoma biocellatum *269

Cichlasoma facetum *267

Cichlasoma festivum *266

Cichlasoma severum *266

Cleaning Glass 23

Climate 217

Climbing Perch *264

Coal Gas 23

Codfish (Powdered) 70

Colisa fasciatus *262

Colisa lalia *263

Collecting Wild Fishes 151

Coloring Age 208

Colors in Goldfish 173

Comet Goldfish *178, *202

Common Goldfish *177, *201

Concrete Aquarium *111

Concrete Pool *114, *117, *118

Constipation 88

Construction (Aquaria) 103

*Star indicates that subject is accompanied by illustration.

314

CROSS INDEX

Page

Construction (concrete aquaria) 109

Construction (Pools) 113

Construction (Wooden Tanks) 109

Consumption 39

Copeina guttata *272

Copper IS, 302

Corydoras undulatus *283

Croaking Gourami *259

Cryptocoryne *53

Crystalwort *55, *56

Ctenobrycon spilurus *271

Ctenops vittatus *259

Cyclops *73, 76

Cynolebias belloti *249

Cyprinus carpio *163

Cypris *73

Danio albolineatus *276

Danio malabaricus *275

Danio rerio *276

Daphnia *73, *S1

Darters 153

Descriptive Key Breeding Habits.... 237
Development Fancy Breeds (Goldfishes)

174, *175

Dip Net *152

Dip Tube 119

Diseases 83, 223

Diseases (Tropical Fishes) 94

Disinfecting 102

Dormitator maculatus *284

Dragon-Fly Larvae *97

Dropsy 89

Duckweed *55

Dwarf Gourami *263

Dytiscus *96

Earthworms 72

Eel 169

Egg Nests *226

Eggs (Goldfish) 200

Electric Light Bug *99

Electric Catfish *2S2

Eleocharis acicularis *41

Elodea *36

Epiplatys chaperi *250

Enchytros 79

Enemies of Aquatic Plants 66

Enemies of Fishes 96

Enneacanthus gloriosus *158

Erimyzon sucetta *162

Etroplus maculatus *267

Euchoristopus barbarus *284

Exhibition *190

Eye Inflammation 91

Fairmount Park Aquarium *299

Fantail Goldfish *179, 201, 202

Feeding 14, 222

Feeding Ring *127

Feeding (Tropicals) 230

Fin Congestion 85

Fish Capacity Rule 8, 234

Fish-carrying Case *127

Fish Diseases 83

Fish Enemies 96

Page

Fishfoods (Living) 72

Fishfoods (Prepared) 67

Fish Lice *92

Flies 76

Florida Moss 210

Flukes 92

Fontinalis *48

Food for Baby Fishes 68, 71, 73, *78, *128

Forceps *120

Forcing Growth (Goldfishes) 207

Foul Sand 22

Fringetail Goldfish 179, *180

Frogbit *57

Frogs 102

Fundulopanchax bivittatum *246

Fundulopanchax caeruleus *245

Fundulus chrysotus *246

Fundulus heteroclitus *160

Fundulus goodei *248

Fundulus gularus *245

Fundulus notti *277

Funnel Trap *122

Gallon Capacity 10

Galvanized Iron 15, 302

Gambusia affinis *255

Gambusia holbrooki *255

Gammarus *79

Geographic Turtles *147

Geophagus braziliensis *269

Giant Gourami *262

Giant Water Bug *99

Gill Congestion 90

Girardinus guppyi *255

Glass Cutting 108

Glass Cleaners 120

Globes *9, 10, *11

Golden Ide *161, *169

Golden Moon Fish *254

Goldfish 172, *189, *191, *201, *202,
*203, *204, *209, *210, *212, *213,

*214, *2l5, *216

Goldfish Competitions 193

Goldfish Eggs *211, *212

Goldfish Fry *212, *213

Goldfish Young *214

Grading Goldfish *228

Green Water 15

Green Water (Marine) 137

Ground Levels 219

Gum Shellac 126

Guppyis • *255

Gyrodactylus 92, 224

Hair Grass *41

Haplochilus cameronensis *252

Haplochilus chaperi *248

Haplochilus lineatus *251

Haplochromis multicolor *270

Happy Family Aquarium 244

Hard-Shell Daphnia *73

Hatching Time (Goldfishes) 205

Heating (Tropicals) 230

CROSS INDEX

315

Page

Heros facetus *267

Herpestis 49, *50

Heteranthera *54

Hints to Beginners 23

Housefiies 76

Hybrids *256

Hydra *101

Hyphessobrycon flammeus *273

Hyphessobrycon rosaceus *236a

Hypostomus species *283

Ichthyophthlrius 92, 224

Ide *161

Idus idus *161

Illustrations and their Sources 304

In-breeding 208

In Short 302

Infusoria 78, *129, 206

Isnardia *44

Itch 88

Judging Scale (Goldfishes) 196

Jordanella floridce *249

Killifish 154, *160

Kitchen on Goldfish Farm *227

Lace Plant *51

Last Resorts 95

Leaks 108

Lebistes reticulatus *255

Leeches 91

Length of Life (Goldfishes) 174

Lepomis humilus *158

Light 13

Lighting (Marine Aquaria) 136

Lily Pool *117

Limnanthemum indicum *62

Limpets 19

Lionhead *204

Lionhead Goldfish *187

Live-bearers 253

Live-bearing Traps.. 121, *122, *123, *124

Live Boxes *225

Live Food (Carrying) 75

Lotus *64 65

Ludwigia *3 1 , *44

Macropodus chinensis *263

Macropodus cupanus dayi *261

Macropodus opercularis *263

Macropodus veridi-auratus *263

Malopterurus elcctricus *2S2

Mare's Tail 51, *52

Marine Aquaria 135

Marine Collections 138

Marine Water 137

Marine Water (Shipping) 137

Marine Water (Temperature) 138

Mealworms 80

Medal (Aquarium Society) *192

Melanotaenia nigrans *282

Mesonauta festivum *266

Mesogonistius choetodon *160

Microscope 128

Mimagoniates barberi *274

Mites *101

Page

Hemichromis bimaadata *267

Mocnkhausia oligolepis *274

Mollienisia latipinna *249, *254, *254a

Mollienisia species *258

Mollienisia sphenops 274a

Monel Metal 135

Moneywort 5i ( *52

Moor Goldfish *185, '*203

Mosquito Larva *73, 76

Moss 22

Mouthbreeder *27C

Mud Trout '. . 154, *163

Mullet *i62

Mussel *20

Myers, George S 286

Myriophyllum 39, *4C

Native Aquarium Fishes 15]

Nelumbium *64, 65

Nets 119

Newts 150

New Wood 15

Nitella +42

Notropis cornutus *161

Notropis lutrensis 284a

Notropis whippelei analostanus *159

Nymph Goldfish *181

Oranda Goldfish *188, *216

Orange-spotted Sunfish *158

Oriental Origin 176

Origin of Goldfish 172

Ospkromenus trichopterus *262

Panchax lineatus *25l

Panchax panchax *252

P achy panchax playfairii *250

Pantodon buchholzi *279

Pantry on Goldfish Farm *227

Paradise Fish *263

Paraffining 107

Parasites 224

Pearl Organs 181

Pearl Roach *155, 164

Permanganate of Potash 16, 85, 224

Pet Store Man 24

Photographing Aquarium *132

Photographing Fishes 133

Pimelodella gracilis *283

Pimephales promelas *165

Pine-tree Lizard *146

Planting 27

Planting Sticks *121

Plant Lice 66

Plants 13

Plants (for Terrarium) 149

Plants in Tropical Aquaria 234

Plants (Necessary Quantity) 26

Plaster-of-Paris 17

Platypoecilus maculatus *254

Platypoecilus maculatus niger *254

Poecilichthys coendus *157

Point System (Judging) 193

Polycentrus schomburgki *280

Potamogeton *42

Predaceous Beetle *98

316

CROSS INDEX

Page

Prices (Goldfishes) 197

Pristella riddlei *272

Pterophyllum scalare *265

Public Aquaria 298

Publisher's Preface 3

Puntius conchonius *278

Puntius semijasciolatus *278

Pyrrhidina guttata *272

Quillwort *47

Rainbow Darter *157

Rasbora heteramorpha *275

Rats 102

Raw Water 12

Rearing Ponds *225

Red-bellied Dace 165, *166

Redfin *155, *161

Red Hybrids *257

Removing Dust 22

Reversion to Original Type 175

Rivulus harti *248

Rivulus ocellatus *247

Rividus rachovi *247

Rividus tenuis *247

Rosy-sided Dace *166

Rotifera *79

Roundtail Paradise Fish *263

Sagittaria 26, 28, *29, *30, *31

Salamanders 150

Salt Treatment 83

Salvinia *56

Sand or Pebbles 26

Scaleless Telescope Goldfish . ..*184, *191

Scales Knocked Off 94

Scardhiius erythropthalmus *164

Scatophagus argus *280

Scavengers *1S

Sceloporus undulatus *146

Scissors (Aquarium) *121

Scrapers (Aquarium) *120

Sea Horses *140

Seasoning Tanks (Cement) 113

Seine Net— How to Work 151

Seining *112

Sex in Goldfishes 199

Shedd Aquarium *300

Shiner 154, *162

Shipping Goldfishes 219

Shipping Tropical Fishes 234

Shrimp (Freshwater) *79

Shrimp (Powdered) 70

Shubunkin Goldfish *178

Sick Fishes 17

Silverfin *153, *159

Siphon 120

Skink *146

Snail Breeding 21

Snails *18

African

Australian

Japanese

Pond

Ramshorn

Page

Soft-shelled Turtle *147

Soil 218

Soldering 106

Sorting Goldfish 222, *228

Spatterdock *45, *46

Spawning Net *124

Spawning Ring *210

Spearmouth 97

Sprinkling Pot 12

Starwort 49, *50

Steel Trap 102

Steinhart Aquarium *300

Sterility 208

Stickleback *168

Stocking Aquarium (Marine) 139

Strangulation 95

Strong Concrete Pool *115

Sunfishes 156, *158, 224

Surface Measure (Circle) 8

Surface Measure (Square) 7

Swamp Aquarium *143

Swimming Bladder Trouble 90

Tadpoles 19

Tail-rot 89

Telescope Goldfish *182, *183, *191

Telescopic-eyed Minnow *192

Temperature Changes 12

Temperature (goldfish) 15

Temperature (tropicals) 244

Tench *170

Terraria 142

Testing Aquaria 22

Tetraodon fluviatilis *281

Tetragonopterus rubropictus 273

Thermos Bottles 234

Thermostat *233, 234

Three-spot Gourami *262

Tilapia macrocephala *2 71

Transparently Scaled Goldfish. .. 183, *1S4

Transparent Scales 173

Trianea *56, 57

Trichogaster fasciatus *262

Trichogaster trichopterus *262

Trinectes maculatus *1 71

Tripod Tails *17S

Tropical Fishes 230

Tropical Fish Exhibitions 235

Tubifex Worms *78

Turtles *147, 150

Umbra pygmaea *163

Utricularia *40

Vallisneria 32, *33, *35

Veiltail Goldfish Frontispiece

Veiltail Telescope Goldfish *184

Wandering Jew 51, *52

Water 15, 218

Water Boatmen *100

Water Chestnut *59, 60

Water Fern *59

Water for Tropicals 230

Water Hyacinth 60, *61

CROSS INDEX

317

Page

Water Lettuce *S3

Water Lilies 60

Water Lily *63

Water Poppy *55

Water Scavenger Beetle *9S

Water Scorpion *100

Water Snowflake 60, *62

Water Stridor 99

Water Surface 6

Water Titrer *96

Weatherfish *20

Page

Web Tails *175

Weight of Water 113

Whirligig Beetle *100

White Fungus 86

White Worm Feeder *S0

White Worms TO

Wholesale Breeding (goldfishes) 217

Wounds, etc 94

Young Goldfishes (Comparative sizes) 1S9
Zinc 15

*Star indicates that subject is accompanied by illustration.

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